Galileo Galilei and Galileo affair

Galileo Galilei (Italian pronunciation: [ɡaliˈlɛːo ɡaliˈlɛi]; 15 February 1564[4] – 8 January 1642),[1][5] was an Italian physicist, mathematician, astronomer, and philosopher who played a major role in the Scientific Revolution. His achievements include improvements to the telescope and consequent astronomical observations and support for Copernicanism. HP G72-110SA BatteryGalileo has been called the "father of modern observational astronomy",[6] the "father of modern physics",[7] the "father of science",[7] and "the Father of Modern Science".[8] His contributions to observational astronomy include the telescopic confirmation of the phases of Venus, HP G72-110SD Batterythe discovery of the four largest satellites of Jupiter (named the Galilean moons in his honour), and the observation and analysis of sunspots. Galileo also worked in applied science and technology, inventing an improved military compass and other instruments. Galileo's championing of heliocentrism was controversial within his lifetime, HP G72-110SO Battery when most subscribed to either geocentrism or the Tychonic system.[9] He met with opposition from astronomers, who doubted heliocentrism due to the absence of an observed stellar parallax.[9] The matter was investigated by the Roman Inquisition in 1615, and they concluded that it could only be supported as a possibility, not as an established factHP G72-110SW Battery.[9][10] Galileo later defended his views in Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, which appeared to attack Pope Urban VIII and thus alienated him and the Jesuits, who had both supported Galileo up until this point.[9] He was tried by the Inquisition, found "vehemently suspect of heresy", forced to recant, HP G72-120EG Battery and spent the rest of his life under house arrest.[11][12] It was while Galileo was under house arrest that he wrote one of his finest works, Two New Sciences. Here he summarized the work he had done some forty years earlier, on the two sciences now called kinematics and strength of materials.[13][14] Early lifeHP G72-120EP Battery Galileo was born in Pisa (then part of the Duchy of Florence), Italy, the first of six children of Vincenzo Galilei, a famous lutenist, composer, and music theorist, and Giulia Ammannati. Gaileo became an accomplished lutist himself and would have learned early from his father a healthy skepticism for established authority, HP G72-120EV Battery [15] the value of well-measured or quantified experimentation, an appreciation for a periodic or musical measure of time or rhythm, as well as the illuminative progeny to expect from a marriage of mathematics and experiment. Three of Galileo's five siblings survived infancy, and the youngest Michelangelo (or Michelagnolo) also became a noted lutenist and composer, HP G72-120EW Batteryalthough he contributed to financial burdens during Galileo's young adulthood. Michelangelo was incapable of contributing his fair share for their father's promised dowries to their brothers-in-law, who would later attempt to seek legal remedies for payments due. Michelangelo would also occasionally have to borrow funds from Galileo for support of his musical endeavors and excursions. HP G72-120SD Battery These financial burdens may have contributed to Galileo's early fire to develop inventions that would bring him additional income. Galileo was named after an ancestor, Galileo Bonaiuti, a physician, university teacher and politician who lived in Florence from 1370 to 1450; at that time in the late 14th century, the family's surname shifted from Bonaiuti (or Buonaiuti) to Galilei. Galileo Bonaiuti was buried in the same church, HP G72-120SG Battery the Basilica of Santa Croce in Florence, where about 200 years later his more famous descendant Galileo Galilei was buried too. When Galileo Galilei was 8, his family moved to Florence, but he was left with Jacopo Borghini for two years.[1] He then was educated in the Camaldolese Monastery at Vallombrosa, 35 km southeast of Florence.[1] HP G72-120SO Battery Galileo's beloved elder daughter, Virginia (Sister Maria Celeste), was particularly devoted to her father. She is buried with him in his tomb in the Basilica of Santa Croce, Florence. Although a genuinely pious Roman Catholic,[16] Galileo fathered three children out of wedlock with Marina Gamba. They had two daughters, HP G72-130 BatteryVirginia in 1600 and Livia in 1601, and one son, Vincenzo, in 1606. Because of their illegitimate birth, their father considered the girls unmarriageable, if not posing problems of prohibitively expensive support or dowries, which would have been similar to Galileo's previous extensive financial problems with two of his sisters. HP G72-130ED Battery [17] Their only worthy alternative was the religious life. Both girls were sent to the convent of San Matteo in Arcetri and remained there for the rest of their lives.[18] Virginia took the name Maria Celeste upon entering the convent. She died on 2 April 1634, and is buried with Galileo at the Basilica of Santa Croce, Florence. HP G72-130EG BatteryLivia took the name Sister Arcangela and was ill for most of her life. Vincenzo was later legitimized as the legal heir of Galileo, and married Sestilia Bocchineri.[19] Career as a scientist Although he seriously considered the priesthood as a young man, HP G72-130EV Battery at his father's urging he instead enrolled at the University of Pisa for a medical degree.[20] In 1581, when he was studying medicine, he noticed a swinging chandelier, which air currents shifted about to swing in larger and smaller arcs. It seemed, by comparison with his heartbeat, HP G72-130SA Battery that the chandelier took the same amount of time to swing back and forth, no matter how far it was swinging. When he returned home, he set up two pendulums of equal length and swung one with a large sweep and the other with a small sweep and found that they kept time together. It was not until Christiaan Huygens almost one hundred years later, HP G72-130SF Battery however, that the resonant nature of a swinging pendulum was used to create an accurate timepiece.[21] To this point, he had deliberately been kept away from mathematics (since a physician earned so much more than a mathematician) but upon accidentally attending a lecture on geometry, he talked his reluctant father into letting him study mathematics and science insteadHP G72-140ED Battery.[21] He created a thermoscope (forerunner of the thermometer) and in 1586 published a small book on the design of a hydrostatic balance he had invented (which first brought him to the attention of the scholarly world).[21] Galileo was always making himself unpopular with influential people, for he had a brilliant and caustic wit and he could not resist using that wit to make jackasses -- and therefore bitter enemies -- of those who disagreed with him. HP G72-150EF Battery Even as a college student, he had been nicknamed "the wrangler" because of his argumentativeness. — Issac Asimov[21] Galileo also studied disegno, a term encompassing fine art, and in 1588 attained an instructor position in the Accademia delle Arti del Disegno in Florence, HP G72-251XX Battery teaching perspective and chiaroscuro. Being inspired by the artistic tradition of the city and the works of the Renaissance artists, Galileo acquired an aesthetic mentality. While a young teacher at the Accademia, he began a lifelong friendship with the Florentine painter Cigoli, who included Galileo's lunar observations in one of his paintings. HP G72-260US Battery [22][23] In 1589, he was appointed to the chair of mathematics in Pisa. In 1591 his father died and he was entrusted with the care of his younger brother Michelagnolo. In 1592, he moved to the University of Padua, teaching geometry, mechanics, and astronomy until 1610. HP G72-a10SA Battery [24] During this period Galileo made significant discoveries in both pure fundamental science (for example, kinematics of motion and astronomy) as well as practical applied science (for example, strength of materials and improvement of the telescope). His multiple interests included the study of astrology, which at the time was a discipline tied to the studies of mathematics and astronomy. HP G72-a20SA Battery [25] Galileo, Kepler and theories of tides Galileo Galilei. Portrait by Leoni Cardinal Bellarmine had written in 1615 that the Copernican system could not be defended without "a true physical demonstration that the sun does not circle the earth but the earth circles the sun"HP G72-a30SA Battery.[26] Galileo considered his theory of the tides to provide the required physical proof of the motion of the earth. This theory was so important to Galileo that he originally intended to entitle his Dialogue on the Two Chief World Systems the Dialogue on the Ebb and Flow of the Sea.[27] The reference to tides was removed by order of the Inquisition. HP G72-a40SA Battery For Galileo, the tides were caused by the sloshing back and forth of water in the seas as a point on the Earth's surface speeded up and slowed down because of the Earth's rotation on its axis and revolution around the Sun. HP G72-b01EA Battery Galileo circulated his first account of the tides in 1616, addressed to Cardinal Orsini.[28] His theory gave the first insight into the importance of the shapes of ocean basins in the size and timing of tides; he correctly accounted, for instance, for the negligible tides halfway along the Adriatic Sea compared to those at the ends. HP G72-b01SA Battery As a general account of the cause of tides, however, his theory was a failure. If this theory were correct, there would be only one high tide per day. Galileo and his contemporaries were aware of this inadequacy because there are two daily high tides at Venice instead of one, about twelve hours apart. HP G72-b02SA Battery Galileo dismissed this anomaly as the result of several secondary causes, including the shape of the sea, its depth, and other factors.[29] Against the assertion that Galileo was deceptive in making these arguments, Albert Einstein expressed the opinion that Galileo developed his "fascinating arguments" and accepted them uncritically out of a desire for physical proof of the motion of the Earth. HP G72-b10SA Battery [30] Galileo dismissed as a "useless fiction" the idea, held by his contemporary Johannes Kepler, that the moon caused the tides.[31] Galileo also refused to accept Kepler's elliptical orbits of the planets,[32] considering the circle the "perfect" shape for planetary orbits. Controversy over comets and The AssayerHP G72-b15SA Battery Main article: The Assayer In 1619, Galileo became embroiled in a controversy with Father Orazio Grassi, professor of mathematics at the Jesuit Collegio Romano. It began as a dispute over the nature of comets, but by the time Galileo had published The Assayer (Il Saggiatore) in 1623, HP G72-b20SA Battery his last salvo in the dispute, it had become a much wider argument over the very nature of science itself. Because The Assayer contains such a wealth of Galileo's ideas on how science should be practised, it has been referred to as his scientific manifesto.[33] Early in 1619, Father Grassi had anonymously published a pamphlet, An Astronomical Disputation on the Three Comets of the Year 1618, HP G72 Battery [34] which discussed the nature of a comet that had appeared late in November of the previous year. Grassi concluded that the comet was a fiery body which had moved along a segment of a great circle at a constant distance from the earthHP G72 Notebook PC Series Battery,[35] and since it moved in the sky more slowly than the moon, it must be farther away than the moon. Grassi's arguments and conclusions were criticized in a subsequent article, Discourse on the Comets,[36] published under the name of one of Galileo's disciples, a Florentine lawyer named Mario Guiducci, HP G72T-200 CTO Batteryalthough it had been largely written by Galileo himself.[37] Galileo and Guiducci offered no definitive theory of their own on the nature of comets,[38] although they did present some tentative conjectures that are now known to be mistaken. In its opening passage, Galileo and Guiducci's Discourse gratuitously insulted the Jesuit Christopher ScheinerHP G72t Battery,[39] and various uncomplimentary remarks about the professors of the Collegio Romano were scattered throughout the work.[40] The Jesuits were offended,[41] and Grassi soon replied with a polemical tract of his own, The Astronomical and Philosophical Balance,[42] under the pseudonym Lothario Sarsio Sigensano, HP Pavilion dv6-3000 Battery [43] purporting to be one of his own pupils. The Assayer was Galileo's devastating reply to the Astronomical Balance.[44] It has been widely regarded as a masterpiece of polemical literature,[45] in which "Sarsi's" arguments are subjected to withering scorn.[46] It was greeted with wide acclaim, and particularly pleased the new pope, HP Pavilion dv6-3005sa BatteryUrban VIII, to whom it had been dedicated.[47] Galileo's dispute with Grassi permanently alienated many of the Jesuits who had previously been sympathetic to his ideas,[48] and Galileo and his friends were convinced that these Jesuits were responsible for bringing about his later condemnation.[49] The evidence for this is at best equivocal, HP Pavilion dv6-3005TX Battery however.[50] Controversy over heliocentrism Main article: Galileo affair Cristiano Banti's 1857 painting Galileo facing the Roman Inquisition Biblical references Psalm 93:1, 96:10, HP Pavilion dv6-3006TX Battery and 1 Chronicles 16:30 include text stating that "the world is firmly established, it cannot be moved." In the same manner, Psalm 104:5 says, "the Lord set the earth on its foundations; it can never be moved." Further, Ecclesiastes 1:5 states that "And the sun rises and sets and returns to its place" etc. HP Pavilion dv6-3010sa Battery [51] Galileo defended heliocentrism, and claimed it was not contrary to those Scripture passages. He took Augustine's position on Scripture: not to take every passage literally, particularly when the scripture in question is a book of poetry and songs, not a book of instructions or history. HP Pavilion dv6-3011TX Battery He believed that the writers of the Scripture merely wrote from the perspective of the terrestrial world, from that vantage point that the sun does rise and set. Another way to put this is that the writers would have been writing from a phenomenological point of view, or style. So Galileo claimed that science did not contradict Scripture, HP Pavilion dv6-3015sa Battery as Scripture was discussing a different kind of "movement" of the earth, and not rotations.[52] By 1616 the attacks on the ideas of Copernicus had reached a head, and Galileo went to Rome to try to persuade the Catholic Church authorities not to ban Copernicus' ideas. In the end, HP Pavilion dv6-3020sa Batterya decree of the Congregation of the Index was issued, declaring that the ideas that the Sun stood still and that the Earth moved were "false" and "altogether contrary to Holy Scripture", and suspending Copernicus's De Revolutionibus until it could be corrected. Acting on instructions from the Pope before the decree was issued, HP Pavilion dv6-3025sa Battery Cardinal Bellarmine informed Galileo that it was forthcoming, that the ideas it condemned could not be "defended or held", and ordered him to abandon them. Galileo promised to obey. Bellarmine's instruction did not prohibit Galileo from discussing heliocentrism as a mathematical fiction but was dangerously ambiguous as to whether he could treat it as a physical possibility. HP Pavilion dv6-3026tx Battery [53] For the next several years Galileo stayed well away from the controversy. He revived his project of writing a book on the subject, encouraged by the election of Cardinal Maffeo Barberini as Pope Urban VIII in 1623. Barberini was a friend and admirer of Galileo, and had opposed the condemnation of Galileo in 1616. The book, Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, HP Pavilion dv6-3030sa Batterywas published in 1632, with formal authorization from the Inquisition and papal permission.[54] Dava Sobel[55] explains that during this time, Urban had begun to fall more and more under the influence of court intrigue and problems of state. HP Pavilion dv6-3030TX Battery His friendship with Galileo began to take second place to his feelings of persecution and fear for his own life. At this low point in Urban's life, the problem of Galileo was presented to the pope by court insiders and enemies of Galileo. Coming on top of the recent claim by the then Spanish cardinal that Urban was soft on defending the church, HP Pavilion dv6-3031sa Batteryhe reacted out of anger and fear. This situation did not bode well for Galileo's defense of his book. Earlier, Pope Urban VIII had personally asked Galileo to give arguments for and against heliocentrism in the book, and to be careful not to advocate heliocentrism. He made another requestHP Pavilion dv6-3032sa Battery, that his own views on the matter be included in Galileo's book. Only the latter of those requests was fulfilled by Galileo. Whether unknowingly or deliberately, Simplicio, the defender of the Aristotelian Geocentric view in Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, was often caught in his own errors and sometimes came across as a fool. HP Pavilion dv6-3032TX Battery Indeed, although Galileo states in the preface of his book that the character is named after a famous Aristotelian philosopher (Simplicius in Latin, Simplicio in Italian), the name "Simplicio" in Italian also has the connotation of "simpleton".[56] This portrayal of Simplicio made Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems appear as an advocacy book: an attack on Aristotelian geocentrism and defence of the Copernican theory. HP Pavilion dv6-3033sa Battery Unfortunately for his relationship with the Pope, Galileo put the words of Urban VIII into the mouth of Simplicio. Most historians agree Galileo did not act out of malice and felt blindsided by the reaction to his book.[57] However, the Pope did not take the suspected public ridicule lightly, nor the Copernican advocacy. Galileo had alienated one of his biggest and most powerful supporters, the Pope, HP Pavilion dv6-3035sa Battery and was called to Rome to defend his writings. In September 1632, Galileo was ordered to come to Rome to stand trial, where he finally arrived in February 1633. Throughout his trial Galileo steadfastly maintained that since 1616 he had faithfully kept his promise not to hold any of the condemned opinions, and initially he denied even defending them. HP Pavilion dv6-3040sa Battery However, he was eventually persuaded to admit that, contrary to his true intention, a reader of his Dialogue could well have obtained the impression that it was intended to be a defence of Copernicanism. In view of Galileo's rather implausible denial that he had ever held Copernican ideas after 1616 or ever intended to defend them in the Dialogue, HP Pavilion dv6-3042TX Battery his final interrogation, in July 1633, concluded with his being threatened with torture if he did not tell the truth, but he maintained his denial despite the threat.[58] The sentence of the Inquisition was delivered on June 22. It was in three essential parts: Galileo was found "vehemently suspect of heresy", HP Pavilion dv6-3044sa Batterynamely of having held the opinions that the Sun lies motionless at the centre of the universe, that the Earth is not at its centre and moves, and that one may hold and defend an opinion as probable after it has been declared contrary to Holy Scripture. He was required to "abjure, curse and detest" those opinionsHP Pavilion dv6-3045sa Battery.[59] He was sentenced to formal imprisonment at the pleasure of the Inquisition.[60] On the following day this was commuted to house arrest, which he remained under for the rest of his life. His offending Dialogue was banned; and in an action not announced at the trial, publication of any of his works was forbidden, HP Pavilion dv6-3046sa Battery including any he might write in the future.[61] Tomb of Galileo Galilei, Santa Croce According to popular legend, after recanting his theory that the Earth moved around the Sun, Galileo allegedly muttered the rebellious phrase And yet it moves, but there is no evidence that he actually said this or anything similar. HP Pavilion dv6-3047sa Battery The first account of the legend dates to a century after his death.[62] After a period with the friendly Ascanio Piccolomini (the Archbishop of Siena), Galileo was allowed to return to his villa at Arcetri near Florence in 1634, where he spent the remainder of his life under house arrest. HP Pavilion dv6-3048sa BatteryGalileo was ordered to read the seven penitential psalms once a week for the next three years. However his daughter Maria Celeste relieved him of the burden after securing ecclesiastical permission to take it upon herself.[63] It was while Galileo was under house arrest that he dedicated his time to one of his finest works, HP Pavilion dv6-3048tx Battery Two New Sciences. Here he summarized work he had done some forty years earlier, on the two sciences now called kinematics and strength of materials. This book has received high praise from Albert Einstein.[64] As a result of this work, Galileo is often called the "father of modern physics". HP Pavilion dv6-3050eo BatteryHe went completely blind in 1638 and was suffering from a painful hernia and insomnia, so he was permitted to travel to Florence for medical advice.[13][14] Death Galileo continued to receive visitors until 1642, when, HP Pavilion dv6-3050sa Battery after suffering fever and heart palpitations, he died on 8 January 1642, aged 77.[13] The Grand Duke of Tuscany, Ferdinando II, wished to bury him in the main body of the Basilica of Santa Croce, next to the tombs of his father and other ancestors, and to erect a marble mausoleum in his honour. HP Pavilion dv6-3055sa Battery [65] These plans were scrapped, however, after Pope Urban VIII and his nephew, Cardinal Francesco Barberini, protested,[66] because Galileo was condemned by the Catholic Church for "vehement suspicion of heresy".[67] He was instead buried in a small room next to the novices' chapel at the end of a corridor from the southern transept of the basilica to the sacristy. HP Pavilion dv6-3056sa Battery [68] He was reburied in the main body of the basilica in 1737 after a monument had been erected there in his honour;[69] during this move, three fingers and a tooth were removed from his remains.[70] One of these fingers, the middle finger from Galileo's right hand, is currently on exhibition at the Museo Galileo in Florence, HP Pavilion dv6-3057sa Battery Italy.[71] Scientific methods Galileo made original contributions to the science of motion through an innovative combination of experiment and mathematics.[72] More typical of science at the time were the qualitative studies of William Gilbert, on magnetism and electricity. Galileo's father, HP Pavilion dv6-3060sa BatteryVincenzo Galilei, a lutenist and music theorist, had performed experiments establishing perhaps the oldest known non-linear relation in physics: for a stretched string, the pitch varies as the square root of the tension.[73] These observations lay within the framework of the Pythagorean tradition of music, well-known to instrument makers, HP Pavilion dv6-3065ea Battery which included the fact that subdividing a string by a whole number produces a harmonious scale. Thus, a limited amount of mathematics had long related music and physical science, and young Galileo could see his own father's observations expand on that tradition.[74] Galileo was one of the first modern thinkers to clearly state that the laws of nature are mathematical. HP Pavilion dv6-3067ea Battery In The Assayer he wrote "Philosophy is written in this grand book, the universe ... It is written in the language of mathematics, and its characters are triangles, circles, and other geometric figures;...."[75] His mathematical analyses are a further development of a tradition employed by late scholastic natural philosophers, HP Pavilion dv6-3068ea Batterywhich Galileo learned when he studied philosophy.[76] He displayed a peculiar ability to ignore established authorities, most notably Aristotelianism. In broader terms, his work marked another step towards the eventual separation of science from both philosophy and religion; a major development in human thought. HP Pavilion dv6-3070ea BatteryHe was often willing to change his views in accordance with observation. In order to perform his experiments, Galileo had to set up standards of length and time, so that measurements made on different days and in different laboratories could be compared in a reproducible fashion. This provided a reliable foundation on which to confirm mathematical laws using inductive reasoning. HP Pavilion dv6-3077la Battery Galileo showed a remarkably modern appreciation for the proper relationship between mathematics, theoretical physics, and experimental physics. He understood the parabola, both in terms of conic sections and in terms of the ordinate (y) varying as the square of the abscissa (x). HP Pavilion dv6-3085ea Battery Galilei further asserted that the parabola was the theoretically ideal trajectory of a uniformly accelerated projectile in the absence of friction and other disturbances. He conceded that there are limits to the validity of this theory, noting on theoretical grounds that a projectile trajectory of a size comparable to that of the Earth could not possibly be a parabolaHP Pavilion dv6-3088la Battery,[77] but he nevertheless maintained that for distances up to the range of the artillery of his day, the deviation of a projectile's trajectory from a parabola would only be very slight.[78] Astronomy Fresco by Giuseppe Bertini depicting Galileo showing the Doge of Venice how to use the telescopeHP Pavilion dv6-3089la Battery It was on this page that Galileo first noted an observation of the moons of Jupiter. This observation upset the notion that all celestial bodies must revolve around the Earth. Galileo published a full description in Sidereus Nuncius in March 1610HP Pavilion dv6-3100 Battery The phases of Venus, observed by Galileo in 1610 Based only on uncertain descriptions of the first practical telescope, invented by Hans Lippershey in the Netherlands in 1608, Galileo, in the following year, made a telescope with about 3x magnification. HP Pavilion dv6-3100sa BatteryHe later made improved versions with up to about 30x magnification.[79] With a Galilean telescope the observer could see magnified, upright images on the earth—it was what is commonly known as a terrestrial telescope or a spyglass. He could also use it to observe the sky; HP Pavilion dv6-3110ea Battery for a time he was one of those who could construct telescopes good enough for that purpose. On 25 August 1609, he demonstrated one of his early telescopes, with a magnification of about 8 or 9, to Venetian lawmakers. His telescopes were also a profitable sideline for Galileo selling them to merchants who found them useful both at sea and as items of trade. HP Pavilion dv6-3110sa BatteryHe published his initial telescopic astronomical observations in March 1610 in a brief treatise entitled Sidereus Nuncius (Starry Messenger).[80] Kepler's Supernova According to Walusinsky, HP Pavilion dv6-3111sa Battery [81] Galileo's fame as an astronomer dates to his observation and discussion of Kepler's supernova in 1604. Since this new star displayed no detectable diurnal parallax, Galileo concluded that it was a distant star, and therefore disproved the Aristotelian belief in the immutability of the heavens. HP Pavilion dv6-3112sa Battery His public advocacy of this view met with strong opposition.[82] Jupiter On 7 January 1610 Galileo observed with his telescope what he described at the time as "three fixed stars, totally invisible[83] by their smallness", all close to Jupiter, and lying on a straight line through itHP Pavilion dv6-3113sa Battery.[84] Observations on subsequent nights showed that the positions of these "stars" relative to Jupiter were changing in a way that would have been inexplicable if they had really been fixed stars. On 10 January Galileo noted that one of them had disappeared, an observation which he attributed to its being hidden behind Jupiter. HP Pavilion dv6-3114sa Battery Within a few days he concluded that they were orbiting Jupiter:[85] He had discovered three of Jupiter's four largest satellites (moons). He discovered the fourth on 13 January. These satellites are now called Io, Europa, HP Pavilion dv6-3115sa BatteryGanymede, and Callisto. Galileo named the group of four the Medicean stars, in honour of his future patron, Cosimo II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany, and Cosimo's three brothers.[86] Later astronomers, however, renamed them Galilean satellites in honour of their discoverer. HP Pavilion dv6-3115tx Battery His observations of the satellites of Jupiter created a revolution in astronomy that reverberates to this day: a planet with smaller planets orbiting it did not conform to the principles of Aristotelian Cosmology, which held that all heavenly bodies should circle the EarthHP Pavilion dv6-3116sa Battery,[87] and many astronomers and philosophers initially refused to believe that Galileo could have discovered such a thing.[88] His observations were confirmed by the observatory of Christopher Clavius and he received a hero's welcome when he visited Rome in 1611HP Pavilion dv6-3116tx Battery.[89] Galileo continued to observe the satellites over the next eighteen months, and by mid 1611 he had obtained remarkably accurate estimates for their periods—a feat which Kepler had believed impossible.[90] Venus, Saturn, and NeptuneHP Pavilion dv6-3117sa Battery From September 1610, Galileo observed that Venus exhibited a full set of phases similar to that of the Moon. The heliocentric model of the solar system developed by Nicolaus Copernicus predicted that all phases would be visible since the orbit of Venus around the Sun would cause its illuminated hemisphere to face the Earth when it was on the opposite side of the Sun and to face away from the Earth when it was on the Earth-side of the Sun. HP Pavilion dv6-3118sa BatteryOn the other hand, in Ptolemy's geocentric model it was impossible for any of the planets' orbits to intersect the spherical shell carrying the Sun. Traditionally the orbit of Venus was placed entirely on the near side of the Sun, where it could exhibit only crescent and new phases. It was, however, also possible to place it entirely on the far side of the Sun, HP Pavilion dv6-3119sa Battery where it could exhibit only gibbous and full phases. After Galileo's telescopic observations of the crescent, gibbous and full phases of Venus, therefore, this Ptolemaic model became untenable. Thus in the early 17th century as a result of his discovery the great majority of astronomers converted to one of the various geo-heliocentric planetary models, HP Pavilion dv6-3120sa Battery [91] such as the Tychonic, Capellan and Extended Capellan models,[92] each either with or without a daily rotating Earth. These all had the virtue of explaining the phases of Venus without the vice of the 'refutation' of full heliocentrism’s prediction of stellar parallax. HP Pavilion dv6-3121sa Battery Galileo’s discovery of the phases of Venus was thus arguably his most empirically practically influential contribution to the two-stage transition from full geocentrism to full heliocentrism via geo-heliocentrism. Galileo observed the planet Saturn, HP Pavilion dv6-3122sa Battery and at first mistook its rings for planets, thinking it was a three-bodied system. When he observed the planet later, Saturn's rings were directly oriented at Earth, causing him to think that two of the bodies had disappeared. HP Pavilion dv6-3123sa Battery The rings reappeared when he observed the planet in 1616, further confusing him.[93] Galileo also observed the planet Neptune in 1612. It appears in his notebooks as one of many unremarkable dim stars. He did not realize that it was a planet, but he did note its motion relative to the stars before losing track of itHP Pavilion dv6-3125sa Battery.[94] Sunspots Galileo was one of the first Europeans to observe sunspots, although Kepler had unwittingly observed one in 1607, but mistook it for a transit of Mercury. He also reinterpreted a sunspot observation from the time of Charlemagne, HP Pavilion dv6-3127sa Batterywhich formerly had been attributed (impossibly) to a transit of Mercury. The very existence of sunspots showed another difficulty with the unchanging perfection of the heavens posited by orthodox Aristotelian celestial physics, but their regular periodic transits also confirmed the dramatic novel prediction of Kepler's Aristotelian celestial dynamics in his 1609 Astronomia Nova that the sun rotates, HP Pavilion dv6-3130sa Batterywhich was the first successful novel prediction of post-spherist celestial physics.[95] And the annual variations in sunspots' motions, discovered by Francesco Sizzi and others in 1612–1613,[96] provided a powerful argument against both the Ptolemaic system and the geoheliocentric system of Tycho Brahe.[97] A dispute over priority in the discovery of sunspots, HP Pavilion dv6-3131sa Battery and in their interpretation, led Galileo to a long and bitter feud with the Jesuit Christoph Scheiner; in fact, there is little doubt that both of them were beaten by David Fabricius and his son Johannes, looking for confirmation of Kepler's prediction of the sun's rotation. Scheiner quickly adopted Kepler's 1615 proposal of the modern telescope design, HP Pavilion dv6-3140sa Batterywhich gave larger magnification at the cost of inverted images; Galileo apparently never changed to Kepler's design. Moon Prior to Galileo's construction of his version of a telescope, Thomas Harriot, an English mathematician and explorer, HP Pavilion dv6-3141ea Battery had already used what he dubbed a "perspective tube" to observe the moon. Reporting his observations, Harriot noted only "strange spottednesse" in the waning of the crescent, but was ignorant to the cause. Galileo, due in part to his artistic training[23] and the knowledge of chiaroscuro, HP Pavilion dv6-3150sa Battery [22] had understood the patterns of light and shadow were in fact topological markers. While not being the only one to observe the moon through a telescope, Galileo was the first to deduce the cause of the uneven waning as light occlusion from lunar mountains and craters. In his study he also made topological charts, estimating the heights of the mountains. The moon was not what was long thought to have been a translucent and perfect sphere, HP Pavilion dv6-3163eo Battery as Aristotle claimed, and hardly the first "planet", an "eternal pearl to magnificently ascend into the heavenly empyrian", as put forth by Dante. Milky Way and stars Galileo observed the Milky Way, HP Pavilion dv6-3180ea Battery previously believed to be nebulous, and found it to be a multitude of stars packed so densely that they appeared to be clouds from Earth. He located many other stars too distant to be visible with the naked eye. He observed the double star Mizar in Ursa Major in 1617.[98] In the Starry Messenger Galileo reported that stars appeared as mere blazes of light, HP Pavilion dv6-3298ea Batteryessentially unaltered in appearance by the telescope, and contrasted them to planets, which the telescope revealed to be discs. But shortly thereafter, in his letters on sunspots, he reported that the telescope revealed the shapes of both stars and planets to be "quite round". From that point forward he continued to report that telescopes showed the roundness of stars, HP Pavilion dv6-3299ea Batteryand that stars seen through the telescope measured a few seconds of arc in diameter.[99] He also devised a method for measuring the apparent size of a star without a telescope. As described in his Dialogue Concerning the two Chief World Systems, his method was to hang a thin rope in his line of sight to the star and measure the maximum distance from which it would wholly obscure the star. HP Pavilion dv6-3300 Battery From his measurements of this distance and of the width of the rope he could calculate the angle subtended by the star at his viewing point.[100] In his Dialogue he reported that he had found the apparent diameter of a star of first magnitude to be no more than 5 arcseconds, and that of one of sixth magnitude to be about 5/6 arcseconds. HP Pavilion dv6-3300sg BatteryLike most astronomers of his day, Galileo did not recognize that the apparent sizes of stars that he measured were spurious, caused by diffraction and atmospheric distortion (see seeing disk or Airy disk), and did not represent the true sizes of stars. However, Galileo's values were much smaller than previous estimates of the apparent sizes of the brightest stars, HP Pavilion dv6-3350ef Battery such as those made by Tycho Brahe (see Magnitude) and enabled Galileo to counter anti-Copernican arguments such as those made by Tycho that these stars would have to be absurdly large for their annual parallaxes to be undetectable.[101] Other astronomers such as Simon Marius, Giovanni Battista Riccioli, HP Pavilion dv6-3350sf Batteryand Martinus Hortensius made similar measurements of stars, and Marius and Riccioli concluded the smaller sizes were not small enough to answer Tycho's argument.[102] Technology Galileo's geometrical and military compass, HP Pavilion dv6-3351ef Batterythought to have been made c. 1604 by his personal instrument-maker Marc'Antonio Mazzoleni Galileo made a number of contributions to what is now known as technology, as distinct from pure physics. This is not the same distinction as made by Aristotle, who would have considered all Galileo's physics as techne or useful knowledge, HP Pavilion dv6-3351sf Battery as opposed to episteme, or philosophical investigation into the causes of things. Between 1595 and 1598, Galileo devised and improved a Geometric and Military Compass suitable for use by gunners and surveyors. This expanded on earlier instruments designed by Niccolò Tartaglia and Guidobaldo del Monte. HP Pavilion dv6-3355ef Battery For gunners, it offered, in addition to a new and safer way of elevating cannons accurately, a way of quickly computing the charge of gunpowder for cannonballs of different sizes and materials. As a geometric instrument, it enabled the construction of any regular polygon, computation of the area of any polygon or circular sector, HP Pavilion dv6-3355sf Batteryand a variety of other calculations. Under Galileo's direction, instrument maker Marc'Antonio Mazzoleni produced more than 100 of these compasses, which Galileo sold (along with an instruction manual he wrote) for 50 lire and offered a course of instruction in the use of the compasses for 120 lire.[103] In about 1593, HP Pavilion dv6-3362ef Battery Galileo constructed a thermometer, using the expansion and contraction of air in a bulb to move water in an attached tube. A replica of the earliest surviving telescope attributed to Galileo Galilei, on display at the Griffith Observatory. In 1609, Galileo was, HP Pavilion dv6-3362sf Batteryalong with Englishman Thomas Harriot and others, among the first to use a refracting telescope as an instrument to observe stars, planets or moons. The name "telescope" was coined for Galileo's instrument by a Greek mathematician, Giovanni Demisiani,[104] at a banquet held in 1611 by Prince Federico Cesi to make Galileo a member of his Accademia dei LinceiHP Pavilion dv6-6000 Battery.[105] The name was derived from the Greek tele = 'far' and skopein = 'to look or see'. In 1610, he used a telescope at close range to magnify the parts of insects.[106] By 1624 Galileo had perfected[107] a compound microscope. He gave one of these instruments to Cardinal Zollern in May of that year for presentation to the Duke of Bavaria, HP Pavilion dv6-6000eg Battery [108] and in September he sent another to Prince Cesi.[109] The Linceans played a role again in naming the "microscope" a year later when fellow academy member Giovanni Faber coined the word for Galileo's invention from the Greek words μικρόν (micron) meaning "small", and σκοπεῖν (skopein) meaning "to look at". HP Pavilion dv6-6001ea BatteryThe word was meant to be analogous with "telescope".[110][111] Illustrations of insects made using one of Galileo's microscopes, and published in 1625, appear to have been the first clear documentation of the use of a compound microscope.[112] In 1612, HP Pavilion dv6-6001eg Batteryhaving determined the orbital periods of Jupiter's satellites, Galileo proposed that with sufficiently accurate knowledge of their orbits one could use their positions as a universal clock, and this would make possible the determination of longitude. He worked on this problem from time to time during the remainder of his life; HP Pavilion dv6-6001sg Batterybut the practical problems were severe. The method was first successfully applied by Giovanni Domenico Cassini in 1681 and was later used extensively for large land surveys; this method, for example, was used by Lewis and Clark. For sea navigation, where delicate telescopic observations were more difficult, the longitude problem eventually required development of a practical portable marine chronometer, HP Pavilion dv6-6002eg Batterysuch as that of John Harrison.[113] In his last year, when totally blind, he designed an escapement mechanism for a pendulum clock (called Galileo's escapement), a vectorial model of which may be seen here. The first fully operational pendulum clock was made by Christiaan Huygens in the 1650s. Physics Galileo e Viviani, 1892, HP Pavilion dv6-6002sg BatteryTito Lessi Galileo's theoretical and experimental work on the motions of bodies, along with the largely independent work of Kepler and René Descartes, was a precursor of the classical mechanics developed by Sir Isaac Newton. Galileo conducted several experiments with pendulums. HP Pavilion dv6-6003eg BatteryIt is popularly believed (thanks to the biography by Vincenzo Viviani) that these began by watching the swings of the bronze chandelier in the cathedral of Pisa, using his pulse as a timer. Later experiments are described in his Two New Sciences. Galileo claimed that a simple pendulum is isochronous, i.e. that its swings always take the same amount of time, HP Pavilion dv6-6004sa Battery independently of the amplitude. In fact, this is only approximately true,[114] as was discovered by Christian Huygens. Galileo also found that the square of the period varies directly with the length of the pendulum. Galileo's son, Vincenzo, sketched a clock based on his father's theories in 1642. HP Pavilion dv6-6005ea Battery The clock was never built and, because of the large swings required by its verge escapement, would have been a poor timekeeper. (See Technology above.) Galileo is lesser known for, yet still credited with, being one of the first to understand sound frequency. HP Pavilion dv6-6005eg Battery By scraping a chisel at different speeds, he linked the pitch of the sound produced to the spacing of the chisel's skips, a measure of frequency. In 1638 Galileo described an experimental method to measure the speed of light by arranging that two observers, each having lanterns equipped with shutters, observe each other's lanterns at some distance. HP Pavilion dv6-6005sg BatteryThe first observer opens the shutter of his lamp, and, the second, upon seeing the light, immediately opens the shutter of his own lantern. The time between the first observer's opening his shutter and seeing the light from the second observer's lamp indicates the time it takes light to travel back and forth between the two observers. HP Pavilion dv6-6006ea Battery Galileo reported that when he tried this at a distance of less than a mile, he was unable to determine whether or not the light appeared instantaneously.[115] Sometime between Galileo's death and 1667, the members of the Florentine Accademia del Cimento repeated the experiment over a distance of about a mile and obtained a similarly inconclusive resultHP Pavilion dv6-6007sg Battery.[116] Galileo put forward the basic principle of relativity, that the laws of physics are the same in any system that is moving at a constant speed in a straight line, regardless of its particular speed or direction. Hence, there is no absolute motion or absolute rest. This principle provided the basic framework for Newton's laws of motion and is central to Einstein's special theory of relativity. HP Pavilion dv6-6007TX Battery Falling bodies A biography by Galileo's pupil Vincenzo Viviani stated that Galileo had dropped balls of the same material, but different masses, from the Leaning Tower of Pisa to demonstrate that their time of descent was independent of their massHP Pavilion dv6-6008eg Battery.[117] This was contrary to what Aristotle had taught: that heavy objects fall faster than lighter ones, in direct proportion to weight.[118] While this story has been retold in popular accounts, there is no account by Galileo himself of such an experiment, and it is generally accepted by historians that it was at most a thought experiment which did not actually take place. HP Pavilion dv6-6008sa Battery [119] An exception is Drake,[120] who argues that the experiment did take place, more or less as Viviani described it. The experiment described was actually performed by Simon Stevin (commonly known as Stevinus),[21] although the building used was actually the church tower in Delft in 1568.[121] HP Pavilion dv6-6008TX Battery In his 1638 Discorsi Galileo's character Salviati, widely regarded as Galileo's spokesman, held that all unequal weights would fall with the same finite speed in a vacuum. But this had previously been proposed by Lucretius[122] and Simon Stevin. HP Pavilion dv6-6011tu Battery [123] Cristiano Banti's Salviati also held it could be experimentally demonstrated by the comparison of pendulum motions in air with bobs of lead and of cork which had different weight but which were otherwise similar. Galileo proposed that a falling body would fall with a uniform acceleration, HP Pavilion dv6-6012tu Batteryas long as the resistance of the medium through which it was falling remained negligible, or in the limiting case of its falling through a vacuum.[124] He also derived the correct kinematical law for the distance travelled during a uniform acceleration starting from rest—namely, that it is proportional to the square of the elapsed time ( d ∝ t 2 ). HP Pavilion dv6-6013cl Battery [125] However, in neither case were these discoveries entirely original. The time-squared law for uniformly accelerated change was already known to Nicole Oresme in the 14th century,[126] and Domingo de Soto, in the 16th, had suggested that bodies falling through a homogeneous medium would be uniformly acceleratedHP Pavilion dv6-6013tu Battery.[127] Galileo expressed the time-squared law using geometrical constructions and mathematically precise words, adhering to the standards of the day. (It remained for others to re-express the law in algebraic terms). He also concluded that objects retain their velocity unless a force—often friction—acts upon them, HP Pavilion dv6-6022eg Battery refuting the generally accepted Aristotelian hypothesis that objects "naturally" slow down and stop unless a force acts upon them (philosophical ideas relating to inertia had been proposed by John Philoponus centuries earlier, as had Jean Buridan, and according to Joseph Needham, Mo Tzu had proposed it centuries before either of themHP Pavilion dv6-6023tx Battery, but this was the first time that it had been mathematically expressed, verified experimentally, and introduced the idea of frictional force, the key breakthrough in validating inertia). Galileo's Principle of Inertia stated: "A body moving on a level surface will continue in the same direction at constant speed unless disturbed. HP Pavilion dv6-6024tx Battery" This principle was incorporated into Newton's laws of motion (first law). Dome of the Cathedral of Pisa with the "lamp of Galileo" Mathematics While Galileo's application of mathematics to experimental physics was innovative, HP Pavilion dv6-6025tx Batteryhis mathematical methods were the standard ones of the day. The analysis and proofs relied heavily on the Eudoxian theory of proportion, as set forth in the fifth book of Euclid's Elements. This theory had become available only a century before, thanks to accurate translations by Tartaglia and others; HP Pavilion dv6-6026tx Batterybut by the end of Galileo's life it was being superseded by the algebraic methods of Descartes. Galileo produced one piece of original and even prophetic work in mathematics: Galileo's paradox, which shows that there are as many perfect squares as there are whole numbers, even though most numbers are not perfect squares. HP Pavilion dv6-6027tx Battery His writings Statue outside the Uffizi, Florence Galileo's early works describing scientific instruments include the 1586 tract entitled The Little Balance (La Billancetta) describing an accurate balance to weigh objects in air or water[128] and the 1606 printed manual Le Operazioni del Compasso Geometrico et Militare on the operation of a geometrical and military compass. HP Pavilion dv6-6029tx Battery [129] His early works in dynamics, the science of motion and mechanics were his 1590 Pisan De Motu (On Motion) and his circa 1600 Paduan Le Meccaniche (Mechanics). The former was based on Aristotelian–Archimedean fluid dynamics and held that the speed of gravitational fall in a fluid medium was proportional to the excess of a body's specific weight over that of the medium, HP Pavilion dv6-6042sf Batterywhereby in a vacuum bodies would fall with speeds in proportion to their specific weights. It also subscribed to the Hipparchan-Philoponan impetus dynamics in which impetus is self-dissipating and free-fall in a vacuum would have an essential terminal speed according to specific weight after an initial period of accelerationHP Pavilion dv6-6051sf Battery. Galileo's 1610 The Starry Messenger (Sidereus Nuncius) was the first scientific treatise to be published based on observations made through a telescope. It reported his discoveries of: the Galilean moons; the roughness of the Moon's surface; HP Pavilion dv6-6051xx Battery the existence of a large number of stars invisible to the naked eye, particularly those responsible for the appearance of the Milky Way; and differences between the appearances of the planets and those of the fixed stars—the former appearing as small discs, HP Pavilion dv6-6054ef Batterywhile the latter appeared as unmagnified points of light. Galileo published a description of sunspots in 1613 entitled Letters on Sunspots[130] suggesting the Sun and heavens are corruptible. HP Pavilion dv6-6054sf Battery The Letters on Sunspots also reported his 1610 telescopic observations of the full set of phases of Venus, and his discovery of the puzzling "appendages" of Saturn and their even more puzzling subsequent disappearance. In 1615 Galileo prepared a manuscript known as the Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina which was not published in printed form until 1636. HP Pavilion dv6-6063sf Battery This letter was a revised version of the Letter to Castelli, which was denounced by the Inquisition as an incursion upon theology by advocating Copernicanism both as physically true and as consistent with Scripture.[131] In 1616, after the order by the inquisition for Galileo not to hold or defend the Copernican position, HP Pavilion dv6-6087eg Battery Galileo wrote the Discourse on the tides (Discorso sul flusso e il reflusso del mare) based on the Copernican earth, in the form of a private letter to Cardinal Orsini.[132] In 1619, Mario Guiducci, a pupil of Galileo's, published a lecture written largely by Galileo under the title Discourse on the Comets (Discorso Delle Comete), arguing against the Jesuit interpretation of cometsHP Pavilion dv6-6090sf Battery.[133] In 1623, Galileo published The Assayer—Il Saggiatore, which attacked theories based on Aristotle's authority and promoted experimentation and the mathematical formulation of scientific ideas. The book was highly successful and even found support among the higher echelons of the Christian churchHP Pavilion dv6-6090us Battery.[134] Following the success of The Assayer, Galileo published the Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems (Dialogo sopra i due massimi sistemi del mondo) in 1632. Despite taking care to adhere to the Inquisition's 1616 instructions, the claims in the book favouring Copernican theory and a non Geocentric model of the solar system led to Galileo being tried and banned on publication. HP Pavilion dv6-6091nr Battery Despite the publication ban, Galileo published his Discourses and Mathematical Demonstrations Relating to Two New Sciences (Discorsi e Dimostrazioni Matematiche, intorno a due nuove scienze) in 1638 in Holland, outside the jurisdiction of the Inquisition. The Little Balance (1586) HP Pavilion dm4 Battery On Motion (1590)[135] Mechanics (ca. 1600) The Starry Messenger (1610; in Latin, Sidereus Nuncius) Discourse on Floating Bodies (1612) HP Pavilion dm4-1000 Battery Letters on Sunspots (1613) Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina (1615; published in 1636) Discourse on the Tides (1616; in Italian, Discorso del flusso e reflusso del mare) Discourse on the Comets (1619; in Italian, HP Pavilion dm4-1001tu BatteryDiscorso Delle Comete) The Assayer (1623; in Italian, Il Saggiatore) Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems (1632; in Italian Dialogo dei due massimi sistemi del mondo) HP Pavilion dm4-1001tx Battery Discourses and Mathematical Demonstrations Relating to Two New Sciences (1638; in Italian, Discorsi e Dimostrazioni Matematiche, intorno a due nuove scienze) Legacy Church reassessments of Galileo in later centuriesHP Pavilion dm4-1002tu Battery The Inquisition's ban on reprinting Galileo's works was lifted in 1718 when permission was granted to publish an edition of his works (excluding the condemned Dialogue) in Florence.[136] In 1741 Pope Benedict XIV authorized the publication of an edition of Galileo's complete scientific works[137] which included a mildly censored version of the DialogueHP Pavilion dm4-1003xx Battery.[138] In 1758 the general prohibition against works advocating heliocentrism was removed from the Index of prohibited books, although the specific ban on uncensored versions of the Dialogue and Copernicus's De Revolutionibus remained. HP Pavilion dm4-1004tu Battery [139] All traces of official opposition to heliocentrism by the church disappeared in 1835 when these works were finally dropped from the Index.[140] In 1939 Pope Pius XII, in his first speech to the Pontifical Academy of Sciences, within a few months of his election to the papacy, HP Pavilion dm4-1004xx Battery described Galileo as being among the "most audacious heroes of research... not afraid of the stumbling blocks and the risks on the way, nor fearful of the funereal monuments".[141] His close advisor of 40 years, Professor Robert Leiber wrote: "Pius XII was very careful not to close any doors (to science) prematurely. HP Pavilion dm4-1006tu Battery He was energetic on this point and regretted that in the case of Galileo."[142] On 15 February 1990, in a speech delivered at the Sapienza University of Rome,[143] Cardinal Ratzinger (later to become Pope Benedict XVI) cited some current views on the Galileo affair as forming what he called "a symptomatic case that permits us to see how deep the self-doubt of the modern age, HP Pavilion dm4-1006tx Batteryof science and technology goes today".[144] Some of the views he cited were those of the philosopher Paul Feyerabend, whom he quoted as saying "The Church at the time of Galileo kept much more closely to reason than did Galileo himself, and she took into consideration the ethical and social consequences of Galileo's teaching too. HP Pavilion dm4-1008tu Battery Her verdict against Galileo was rational and just and the revision of this verdict can be justified only on the grounds of what is politically opportune."[144] The Cardinal did not clearly indicate whether he agreed or disagreed with Feyerabend's assertions. He did, however, HP Pavilion dm4-1008tx Battery say "It would be foolish to construct an impulsive apologetic on the basis of such views."[144] On 31 October 1992, Pope John Paul II expressed regret for how the Galileo affair was handled, and issued a declaration acknowledging the errors committed by the Catholic Church tribunal that judged the scientific positions of Galileo Galilei, HP Pavilion dm4-1009tx Battery as the result of a study conducted by the Pontifical Council for Culture.[145][146] In March 2008 the head of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences, Nicola Cabibbo, announced a plan to honour Galileo by erecting a statue of him inside the Vatican walls.[147] In December of the same year, during events to mark the 400th anniversary of Galileo's earliest telescopic observations, HP Pavilion dm4-1010eg Battery Pope Benedict XVI praised his contributions to astronomy.[148] A month later, however, the head of the Pontifical Council for Culture, Gianfranco Ravasi, revealed that the plan to erect a statue of Galileo in the grounds of the Vatican had been suspended.[149] Impact on modern scienceHP Pavilion dm4-1010tx Battery According to Stephen Hawking, Galileo probably bears more of the responsibility for the birth of modern science than anybody else,[150] and Albert Einstein called him the father of modern science.[151][152] Galileo's astronomical discoveries and investigations into the Copernican theory have led to a lasting legacy which includes the categorisation of the four large moons of Jupiter discovered by Galileo (Io, HP Pavilion dm4-1012TX Battery Europa, Ganymede and Callisto) as the Galilean moons. Other scientific endeavours and principles are named after Galileo including the Galileo spacecraft,[153] the first spacecraft to enter orbit around Jupiter, the proposed Galileo global satellite navigation system, HP Pavilion dm4-1013tx Battery the transformation between inertial systems in classical mechanics denoted Galilean transformation and the Gal (unit), sometimes known as the Galileo which is a non-SI unit of acceleration. International Year of Astronomy commemorative coinHP Pavilion dm4-1014TX Battery Partly because 2009 was the fourth centenary of Galileo's first recorded astronomical observations with the telescope, the United Nations scheduled it to be the International Year of Astronomy.[154] A global scheme was laid out by the International Astronomical Union (IAU), also endorsed by UNESCO—the UN body responsible for Educational, Scientific and Cultural matters. HP Pavilion dm4-1015TX BatteryThe International Year of Astronomy 2009 was intended to be a global celebration of astronomy and its contributions to society and culture, stimulating worldwide interest not only in astronomy but science in general, with a particular slant towards young people. Asteroid 697 Galilea is named in his honourHP Pavilion dm4-1016tx Battery. In artistic and popular media Galileo is mentioned several times in the "opera" section of the Queen song, "Bohemian Rhapsody".[155] He features prominently in the song "Galileo" performed by the Indigo Girls. HP Pavilion dm4-1017tx Battery Twentieth-century plays have been written on Galileo's life, including Life of Galileo (1943) by the German playwright Bertolt Brecht, with a film adaptation (1975) of it, and Lamp At Midnight (1947) by Barrie Stavis,[156] as well as the 2008 play "Galileo Galilei".[157] HP Pavilion dm4-1018tx Battery Kim Stanley Robinson wrote a science fiction novel entitled Galileo's Dream (2009), in which Galileo is brought into the future to help resolve a crisis of scientific philosophy; the story moves back and forth between Galileo's own time and a hypothetical distant future.[158] HP Pavilion dm4-1019tx Battery Galileo Galilei was recently selected as a main motif for a high value collectors' coin: the €25 International Year of Astronomy commemorative coin, minted in 2009. This coin also commemorates the 400th anniversary of the invention of Galileo's telescope. The obverse shows a portion of his portrait and his telescope. HP Pavilion dm4-1020tx BatteryThe background shows one of his first drawings of the surface of the moon. In the silver ring other telescopes are depicted: the Isaac Newton Telescope, the observatory in Kremsmünster Abbey, a modern telescope, a radio telescope and a space telescope. In 2009, the Galileoscope was also released. HP Pavilion dm4-1021tx BatteryThis is a mass-produced, low-cost educational 2-inch (51 mm) telescope with relatively high quality. Timeline 11 Galileo affairHP Pavilion dm4-1022tx Battery The Galileo affair was a sequence of events, beginning around 1610, during which Galileo Galilei came into conflict with the Aristotelian scientific view of the universe (supported by the Catholic Church), over his support of Copernican astronomy.[1] In 1610, Galileo published his Sidereus Nuncius (Starry Messenger), HP Pavilion dm4-1023tx Battery describing the surprising observations that he had made with the new telescope, namely the phases of Venus and the Galilean moons of Jupiter. He went on to propose a theory of tides in 1616, and of comets in 1619. He argued that the tides were evidence for the motion of the Earth, and promoted the heliocentric theory of Copernicus (published in De revolutionibus orbium coelestium in 1543). HP Pavilion dm4-1024tx Battery These ideas created conflicts with other scientists and Catholic scholars. Galileo's part in the controversies over theology, astronomy, and philosophy culminated in his trial and sentencing by the Roman Inquisition in 1633 on a grave suspicion of heresy. 1600 revolution in cosmologyHP Pavilion dm4-1027tx Battery Galileo began his telescopic observations in the later part of 1609, and by March 1610 was able to publish a small book, The Starry Messenger (Sidereus Nuncius), relating some discoveries that had not been dreamed of in the philosophy of the time: mountains on the Moon, lesser moons in orbit around Jupiter, HP Pavilion dm4-1028tx Battery and the resolution of what had been thought to be very cloudy masses in the sky (nebulae) into collections of stars too faint to see individually without a telescope. Other observations followed, including the phases of Venus and the existence of sunspots. None of these findings, HP Pavilion dm4-1029tx Batterywhich were difficult at first for other astronomers to verify, proved that the Earth moved, or directly contradicted either Aristotle's model or Christian doctrine. However, they caused difficulties for natural philosophers of the time, as they contradicted scientific and philosophical ideas based on those of Aristotle and Ptolemy and closely associated with the Catholic Church then (despite their being pagan authors). HP Pavilion dm4-1030ez Battery In particular, the phases of Venus, which showed it to circle the sun, and the observation of moons orbiting Jupiter contradicted the geocentric model of Ptolemy, in which the motion of all celestial bodies was centered on the Earth. Jesuit astronomersHP Pavilion dm4-1030tx Battery, experts both in Church teachings, science, and in natural philosophy, were at first skeptical and hostile to the new ideas; however, within a year or two the availability of good telescopes enabled them to repeat the observations. In 1611, Galileo visited the Collegium Romanum in Rome, HP Pavilion dm4-1031tx Batterywhere the Jesuit astronomers by that time had repeated his observations. Christoph Grienberger, one of the Jesuit scholars on the faculty, sympathized with Galileo’s theories, but was asked to defend the Aristotelian viewpoint by Claudio Acquaviva, the Father General of the Jesuits. Not all of Galileo's claims were completely accepted: Christopher Clavius, HP Pavilion dm4-1033tx Batterythe most distinguished astronomer of his age, never was reconciled to the idea of mountains on the Moon, and outside the collegium many still disputed the reality of the observations. In a letter to Kepler of August 1610,[2] Galileo complained that some of the philosophers who opposed his discoveries had refused even to look through a telescope:[3] HP Pavilion dm4-1034tx Battery My dear Kepler, I wish that we might laugh at the remarkable stupidity of the common herd. What do you have to say about the principal philosophers of this academy who are filled with the stubbornness of an asp and do not want to look at either the planets, the moon or the telescope, HP Pavilion dm4-1035tx Battery even though I have freely and deliberately offered them the opportunity a thousand times? Truly, just as the asp stops its ears, so do these philosophers shut their eyes to the light of truth."[4] Geocentrists who did verify and accept Galileo's findings had an alternative to Ptolemy's model in an alternative geocentric (or "geo-heliocentric") model proposed some decades earlier by Tycho Brahe—a model, HP Pavilion dm4-1036tx Batteryin which, for example, Venus circled the sun. Galileo became involved in a dispute over priority in the discovery of sunspots with Christoph Scheiner, HP Pavilion dm4-1047tx Battery a prominent Jesuit. This became a bitter lifelong feud. Neither of them, however, was the first to recognise sunspots—the Chinese had already been familiar with them for centuries.[5] At this time, Galileo also engaged in a dispute over the reasons that objects float or sink in water, siding with Archimedes against Aristotle. HP Pavilion dm4-1048tx BatteryThe debate was unfriendly, and Galileo's blunt and sometimes sarcastic style, though not extraordinary in academic debates of the time, made him enemies. During this controversy one of Galileo's friends, the painter, Lodovico Cardi da Cigoli, informed him that a group of malicious opponents, HP Pavilion dm4-1050ca Batterywhich Cigoli subsequently referred to derisively as "the Pigeon league,"[6] was plotting to cause him trouble over the motion of the earth, or anything else that would serve the purpose.[7] According to Cigoli, one of the plotters had asked a priest to denounce Galileo's views from the pulpit, HP Pavilion dm4-1050ea Batterybut the latter had refused. Nevertheless, three years later another priest, Tommaso Caccini, did in fact do precisely that, as described below. [edit]Bible argument From antiquity, the majority of educated people subscribed to the Aristotelian view of geocentrism that the earth was the center of the universe and that all heavenly bodies revolved around the Earth. HP Pavilion dm4-1050et BatteryDespite the use of Copernican theories to reform the calendar in 1582,[8] this agreed with a literalist interpretation of Scripture in several places, such as 1 Chronicles 16:30, Psalm 93:1, Psalm 96:10, Psalm 104:5, Ecclesiastes 1:5. Further, HP Pavilion dm4-1050so Battery since it was believed that in the incarnation the Son of God had descended to the earth and become man, it seemed fitting that the Earth be the center around which all other celestial bodies moved. Heliocentrism, the theory that the Earth was a planet, which, along with all the others, revolved around the Sun, HP Pavilion dm4-1050ss Batterycontradicted both geocentrism and the prevailing theological support of the theory. One of the first suggestions of heresy that Galileo had to deal with came in 1613 from a professor of philosophy (what we would now call a professor of scientific theory), Cosimo Boscaglia, HP Pavilion dm4-1060ea Batterywho was neither a theologian nor a priest.[9] In conversation with Galileo's patron, Cosimo II de' Medici, Boscaglia gave the opinion that the telescopic discoveries were valid, but the motion of the Earth was obviously contrary to Scripture. Galileo was defended on the spot by a Benedictine abbot, Benedetto Castelli, who was also a professor of mathematics and a former student of Galileo's. HP Pavilion dm4-1060ee BatteryThis exchange, reported to Galileo by Castelli, led Galileo to write a letter to Castelli,[10] expounding his views on what he considered the most appropriate way of treating scriptural passages which made assertions about natural phenomena.[11] Later, in 1615, he expanded this into his much longer Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina. HP Pavilion dm4-1060sf Battery [12] Tommaso Caccini, a Dominican friar, appears to have made the first dangerous attack on Galileo. Preaching a sermon in Florence at the end of 1614, he denounced Galileo, his associates, and mathematicians in general (a category that included astronomers). The biblical text for the sermon on that day was Joshua 10, HP Pavilion dm4-1060ss Battery in which Joshua makes the Sun stand still; this was the story that Castelli had had to interpret for the Medici family the year before. It is said, though it is not verifiable, that Caccini also used the passage from Acts 1:11, "Ye men of Galilee, why stand ye gazing up into heaven?" HP Pavilion dm4-1060us Battery. [edit]First meetings with theological authorities Galileo argued that his telescopic observations favored the Copernican heliocentric theory as a physical truth.[13][not in citation given] In late 1614 or early 1615, HP Pavilion dm4-1062nr Batteryone of Caccini's fellow Dominicans, Niccolò Lorini, acquired a copy of Galileo's letter to Castelli, which he considered of sufficiently doubtful orthodoxy to bring to the attention of the Inquisition. In February 1615 he accordingly sent a copy to the Secretary of the Inquisition, Cardinal Paolo Emilio Sfondrati, with a covering letter critical of Galileo's supporters. HP Pavilion dm4-1063cl Battery [14] On March 19, Caccini arrived at the Inquisition's offices in Rome to denounce Galileo for his Copernicanism and various other alleged heresies supposedly being spread by his pupils.[15] Galileo soon heard reports that Lorini had obtained a copy of his letter to Castelli and was claiming that it contained many heresies. HP Pavilion dm4-1063he Battery He also heard that Caccini had gone to Rome and suspected him of trying to stir up trouble with Lorini's copy of the letter.[16] As 1615 wore on he became more concerned, and eventually determined to go to Rome as soon as his health permitted, which it did at the end of the year. By presenting his case there, HP Pavilion dm4-1065dx Batteryhe hoped to clear his name of any suspicion of heresy, and to persuade the Church authorities not to suppress heliocentric ideas. In this he was acting against the advice of friends and allies, and the Tuscan ambassador to Rome, Piero Guicciardini. [edit]Bellarmine's viewHP Pavilion dm4-1070ee Battery Robert Cardinal Bellarmine, one of the most respected Catholic theologians of the time, was called on to adjudicate the dispute between Galileo and his opponents, including both religious and secular university professors.[citation needed] The question of heliocentrism had first been raised with Cardinal Bellarmine, HP Pavilion dm4-1070ef Batteryin the case of Paolo Antonio Foscarini, a Carmelite father; Foscarini had published a book, Lettera ... sopra l'opinione ... del Copernico, which attempted to reconcile Copernicus with the biblical passages that seemed to be in contradiction. Bellarmine at first expressed the opinion that Copernicus's book would not be banned, HP Pavilion dm4-1070sf Batterybut would at most require some editing so as to present the theory purely as a calculating device for "saving the appearances."[17] Foscarini sent a copy of his book to Bellarmine, who replied in a letter of April 12, 1615.[18] Galileo is mentioned by name in the letter, and a copy was soon sent to him. After some preliminary salutations and acknowledgements, HP Pavilion dm4-1080ea BatteryBellarmine begins by telling Foscarini that it is prudent for him and Galileo to limit themselves to treating heliocentrism as a merely hypothetical phenomenon and not a physically real one. Further on he says that interpreting heliocentrism as physically real would be "a very dangerous thing, likely not only to irritate all scholastic philosophers and theologians, HP Pavilion dm4-1080ee Batterybut also to harm the Holy Faith by rendering Holy Scripture as false." Moreover, while the topic was not inherently a matter of faith, the statements about it in Scripture were so by virtue of who said them—namely, the Holy Spirit. He conceded that if there were conclusive proof, "then one would have to proceed with great care in explaining the Scriptures that appear contrary; HP Pavilion dm4-1080sf Battery and say rather that we do not understand them, than that what is demonstrated is false." However, demonstrating that heliocentrism merely "saved the appearances" could not be regarded as sufficient to establish that it was physically real. Although he believed that the former may well have been possible, he had "very great doubts" that the latter would be, HP Pavilion dm4-1090ee Battery and in case of doubt it was not permissible to depart from the traditional interpretation of Scriptures. His final argument was a rebuttal of an analogy that Foscarini had made between a moving Earth and a ship on which the passengers perceive themselves as apparently stationary and the receding shore as apparently moving. HP Pavilion dm4-1090la BatteryBellarmine replied that in the case of the ship the passengers know that their perceptions are erroneous and can mentally correct them, whereas the scientist on the Earth clearly experiences that it is stationary and therefore the perception that the Sun, moon and stars are moving are not in error and have no need to be corrected. HP Pavilion dm4-1100 Battery Bellarmine found no problem with heliocentrism so long as it was treated as a purely hypothetical calculating device and not as a physically real phenomenon, but he did not regard it as permissible to advocate the latter unless it could be conclusively proved through current scientific standards. HP Pavilion dm4-1100eg Battery This put Galileo in a difficult position, because he believed that the available evidence strongly favoured heliocentrism, and he wished to be able to publish his arguments, but he did not have the conclusive proof necessary to satisfy Bellarmine's requirements.[19] [edit]Inquisition examinationHP Pavilion dm4-1100sa Battery On February 19, 1616, the Inquisition asked a commission of theologians, known as qualifiers, about the propositions of the heliocentric view of the universe.[20] Historians of the Galileo affair have offered different accounts of why the matter was referred to the qualifiers at this time. HP Pavilion dm4-1101ea Battery Beretta points out that the Inquisition had taken a deposition from Gianozzi Attavanti in November, 1615,[21] as part of its investigation into the denunciations of Galileo by Lorini and Caccini. In this deposition, Attavanti confirmed that Galileo had advocated the Copernican doctrines of a stationary Sun and a mobile Earth, HP Pavilion dm4-1101tx Battery and as a consequence the Tribunal of the Inquisition would have eventually needed to determine the theological status of those doctrines. It is however possible, as surmised by the Tuscan ambassador, Piero Guiccardini, in a letter to the Grand Duke,[22] that the actual referral may have been precipitated by Galileo's aggressive campaign to prevent the condemnation of Copernicanism.[23] HP Pavilion dm4-1102tx Battery On February 24 the Qualifiers delivered their unanimous report: the idea that the Sun is stationary is "foolish and absurd in philosophy, and formally heretical since it explicitly contradicts in many places the sense of Holy Scripture..."; HP Pavilion dm4-1107tx Battery while the Earth's movement "receives the same judgement in philosophy and ... in regard to theological truth it is at least erroneous in faith." At a meeting of the cardinals of the Inquisition on the following day, Pope Paul V instructed Bellarmine to deliver this result to Galileo, HP Pavilion dm4-1108tx Batteryand to order him to abandon the Copernican opinions; should Galileo resist the decree, stronger action would be taken. On February 26, Galileo was called to Bellarmine's residence, and accepted the orders.[24] On March 5, the decree was issued by the Congregation of the Index, prohibiting, HP Pavilion dm4-1111tx Battery condemning, or suspending various books which advocated the truth of the Copernican system. Galileo met again with Bellarmine, apparently on friendly terms; and on March 11 he met with the Pope, who assured him that he was safe from persecution so long as he, the Pope, should live. Nonetheless, HP Pavilion dm4-1113tx Battery Galileo's friends Sagredo and Castelli reported that there were rumors that Galileo had been forced to recant and do penance. To protect his good name, Galileo requested a letter from Bellarmine stating the truth of the matter. This letter assumed great importance in 1633, as did the question whether Galileo had been ordered not to "hold or defend" Copernican ideas (which would have allowed their hypothetical treatment) or not to teach them in any way. HP Pavilion dm4-1116tx Battery If the Inquisition had issued the order not to teach heliocentrism at all, it would have been ignoring Bellarmine's position. In the end, Galileo did not persuade the Church to stay out of the controversy, but instead saw heliocentrism formally declared as an idea that could not be held as truth, HP Pavilion dm4-1117tx Battery for lack of evidence. It was consequently termed heretical by the Qualifiers, since it contradicted the literal meaning of the Scriptures, though this position was not binding on the Church. Foscarini's book was banned; while Copernicus' De Revolutionibus, though not formally banned, was removed from circulation pending revisions, HP Pavilion dm4-1118tx Battery and in fact was not fully cleared until the 19th century.[citation needed] Galileo was personally safe and his works had not been banned, but there was doubt (felt by other astronomers as far away as Germany) whether it was possible to do serious work in Copernican astronomy.[citation needed] [edit]DialogueHP Pavilion dm4-1120tx Battery In 1623, Pope Gregory XV, died, and was succeeded by Pope Urban VIII, who showed greater favor to Galileo, particularly after Galileo traveled to Rome to congratulate the new Pontiff.[25] Dava Sobel[26] explains that during this time, HP Pavilion dm4-1121tx BatteryUrban had begun to fall more and more under the influence of court intrigue and problems of state. His friendship with Galileo began to take second place to his feelings of persecution and fear for his own life. At this low point in Urban's life, the problem of Galileo was presented to the pope by court insiders and enemies of Galileo. HP Pavilion dm4-1122tx BatteryComing on top of the recent claim by the then Spanish cardinal that Urban was soft on defending the church, he reacted out of anger and fear. This situation did not bode well for Galileo's defense of his book. In his 1998 book, Scientific Blunders, HP Pavilion dm4-1123tx BatteryRobert Youngson indicates that Galileo struggled for two years against the ecclesiastical censor to publish a book promoting heliocentrism. He claims the book passed only as a result of possible idleness or carelessness on the part of the censor, who was eventually dismissed. On the other hand, Jerome K. HP Pavilion dm4-1140sa Battery Langford and Raymond J. Seeger contend that Pope Urban and the Inquisition gave formal permission to publish the book, Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, Ptolemaic & Copernican. They claim Urban personally asked Galileo to give arguments for and against heliocentrism in the book, to include Urban's own arguments, and for Galileo not to advocate heliocentrism. The Dialogue, HP Pavilion dm4-1150ca Batterywhich was published in 1632 to great popularity, was an account of conversations between a Copernican scientist, Salviati, an impartial and witty scholar named Sagredo, and a ponderous Aristotelian named Simplicio, who employed stock arguments in support of geocentricity, and was depicted in the book as being an intellectually inept fool. HP Pavilion dm4-1150ea Battery Simplicio's arguments are systematically refuted and ridiculed by the other two characters with what Youngson calls "unassailable proof" for the Copernican theory (at least versus the theory of Ptolemy—as Finocchiaro points out, "the Copernican and Tychonic systems were observationally equivalent and the available evidence could be explained equally well by either"[27]), HP Pavilion dm4-1150ef Battery which reduces Simplicio to baffled rage, and makes the author's position unambiguous.[25] Indeed, although Galileo states in the preface of his book that the character is named after a famous Aristotelian philosopher (Simplicius in Latin, Simplicio in Italian), HP Pavilion dm4-1160ef Batterythe name "Simplicio" in Italian also had the connotation of "simpleton."[28] Although authors Langford and Stillman Drake assert that Simplicio was modeled on philosophers Lodovico delle Colombe and Cesare Cremonini, HP Pavilion dm4-1160eo BatteryPope Urban's demand for his own arguments to be included in the book resulted in Galileo putting them in the mouth of Simplicio. Some months after the book's publication, Pope Urban VIII banned its sale and had its text submitted for examination by a special commission. HP Pavilion dm4-1160us Battery [25] Despite the decision of attributing the Pope's words to Simplicio was perceived as a mockery, some historians suggest that Galileo might have not acted out of malice.[29] [edit]Redondi's theory According to a controversial alternative theory, HP Pavilion dm4-1162ef Batteryproposed by Pietro Redondi in 1983,[30] the main reason for Galileo's condemnation in 1633 was his attack on the Aristotelian doctrine of matter rather than his defence of Copernicanism. An anonymous document discovered by Redondi in the Vatican archives had argued that the atomism espoused by Galileo in his previous work, HP Pavilion dm4-1162sf Battery The Assayer, of 1623 was incompatible with the doctrine of transubstantiation of the Eucharist.[31] At the time, investigation of this complaint was apparently trusted to a Father Giovanni di Guevara, who was well-disposed towards Galileo, and who cleared The Assayer from any taint of unorthodoxy.[32] However, according to Redondi: HP Pavilion dm4-1162us Battery The Jesuits, who had been deeply offended by The Assayer, regarded the ideas about matter expressed by Galileo in The Dialogue as further evidence that his atomism was heretically inconsistent with the doctrine of the Eucharist, and strongly protested against it on these grounds. HP Pavilion dm4-1164nr Battery [33] Pope Urban VIII, who had been under attack by Spanish cardinals for being too tolerant of heretics, but who had also encouraged Galileo to publish The Dialogue, would have been severely compromised if his enemies among the Cardinal Inquisitors had found out that he had been guilty of supporting a publication containing Eucharistic heresies. HP Pavilion dm4-1165dx Battery Urban, after banning the book's sale, established a commission to examine The Dialogue,[25] ostensibly for the purpose of determining whether it would be possible to avoid referring the matter to the Inquisition at all, and as a special favor to Galileo's patron, the Grand Duke of Tuscany. HP Pavilion dm4-1170sf BatteryUrban's real purpose, though, was to avoid having the accusations of Eucharistic heresy referred to the Inquisition, and he stacked the commission with friendly commissioners who could be relied upon not to mention them in their report.[citation needed] The commission reported against Galileo. HP Pavilion dm4-1173cl Battery [25] Redondi's theory has been severely criticized, and almost universally rejected, by other Galileo scholars.[34] However, it has been supported recently by science writer Michael White.[35] [edit]TrialHP Pavilion dm4-1180ef Battery Cristiano Banti's 1857 painting Galileo facing the Roman Inquisition With the loss of many of his defenders in Rome because of Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, Galileo was ordered to stand trial on suspicion of heresy in 1633, "for holding as true the false doctrine taught by some that the sun is the center of the world",HP Pavilion dm4-1180sf Battery against the 1616 condemnation, since "it was decided at the Holy Congregation [...] on 25 Feb 1616 that [...] the Holy Office would give you an injunction to abandon this doctrine, not to teach it to others, not to defend it, and not to treat of it; and that if you did not acquiesce in this injunction, you should be imprisoned".HP Pavilion dm4-1201us Battery [36] A panel of theologians, consisting of Melchior Inchofer, Agostino Oreggi and Zaccaria Pasqualigo, reported on the Dialogue. Their opinions were strongly argued in favour of the view that the Dialogue taught the Copernican theory.[37] Galileo was found guiltyHP Pavilion dm4-1211tx Battery, and the sentence of the Inquisition, issued on 22 June 1633,[38] was in three essential parts: Galileo was found "vehemently suspect of heresy," namely of having held the opinions that the Sun lies motionless at the center of the universe, that the Earth is not at its centre and moves, HP Pavilion dm4-1218tx Batteryand that one may hold and defend an opinion as probable after it has been declared contrary to Holy Scripture. He was required to "abjure, curse, and detest" those opinions.[39] He was sentenced to formal imprisonment at the pleasure of the Inquisition.[40] On the following day this was commuted to house arrest, HP Pavilion dm4-1221tx Batterywhich he remained under for the rest of his life. His offending Dialogue was banned; and in an action not announced at the trial, publication of any of his works was forbidden, including any he might write in the future.[41] HP Pavilion dm4-1250ca Battery According to popular legend, after his abjuration Galileo allegedly muttered the rebellious phrase "and yet it moves" (Eppur si muove), but there is no evidence that he actually said this or anything similar. HP Pavilion dm4-1253cl Battery The first account of the legend dates to a century after his death.[42]. The phrase "Eppur si muove" does appear, however, in a painting of the 1640s by the Spanish painter Bartolomé Esteban Murillo or an artist of his school. The painting depicts an imprisoned Galileo apparently pointing to a copy of the phrase written on the wall of his dungeon HP Pavilion dm4-1265dx Battery [43] After a period with the friendly Archbishop Piccolomini in Siena, Galileo was allowed to return to his villa at Arcetri near Florence, where he spent the remainder of his life under house arrest. He continued his work on mechanics, and in 1638, he published a scientific book in Holland. His standing would remain questioned at every turn. In March 1641, Vincentio Reinieri, HP Pavilion dm4-1273ca Batterya follower and pupil of Galileo, wrote him at Arcetri that an Inquisitor had recently compelled the author of a book printed at Florence to change the words "most distinguished Galileo" to "Galileo, man of noted name."[44] However, partially in tribute to Galileo, HP Pavilion dm4-1275ca Batteryat Arcetri the first academy devoted to the new experimental science, The Accademia del Cimento was formed, which is where Francesco Redi performed the first controlled experiment and many other important advancements were made which would eventually help usher in The Age of Enlightenment. HP Pavilion dm4-1277sb Battery [edit]Modern Catholic Church views In 1758 the Catholic Church dropped the general prohibition of books advocating heliocentrism from the Index of Forbidden Books.[45] It did not, however, explicitly rescind the decisions issued by the Inquisition in its judgement of 1633 against Galileo, HP Pavilion dm4-1300 Battery or lift the prohibition of uncensored versions of Copernicus's De Revolutionibus or Galileo's Dialogue.[45] As a result, the precise doctrinal status of heliocentrism remained unclear, and many Catholic scientists continued to pay lip service to the view that it could only be treated as a hypothesis.[45] Others, however, openly endorsed it as an established fact without meeting any official opposition from the Church. HP Pavilion dm4-1300ea Battery [46] The issue finally came to a head in 1820 when the Master of the Sacred Palace (the Church's chief censor), Filippo Anfossi, refused to license a book by a Catholic canon, Giuseppe Settele, because it openly treated heliocentrism as a physical fact.[47] Settele appealed to the then pope, Pius VII. HP Pavilion dm4-1301sg Battery After the matter had been reconsidered by the Congregation of the Index and the Holy Office, Anfossi's decision was overturned.[47] Copernicus's De Revolutionibus and Galileo's Dialogue were then subsequently omitted from the next edition of the Index when it appeared in 1835. On February 15, 1990, HP Pavilion dm4-1360ef Battery in a speech delivered at La Sapienza University in Rome,[48] Cardinal Ratzinger, now Pope Benedict XVI, cited some current views on the Galileo affair as forming what he called "a symptomatic case that illustrates the extent to which modernity’s doubts about itself have grown today in science and technology."[49] As evidence, HP Pavilion dm4-1360sf Battery he presented the views of a few prominent philosophers including Ernst Bloch and Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker, as well as Paul Feyerabend, whom he quoted as saying: The Church at the time of Galileo kept much more closely to reason than did Galileo himself, and she took into consideration the ethical and social consequences of Galileo's teaching too. HP Pavilion dm4t-1000 BatteryHer verdict against Galileo was rational and just, and the revision of this verdict can be justified only on the grounds of what is politically opportune.[50] Ratzinger did not indicate whether he agreed or disagreed with Feyerabend's assertions, but he did say "It would be foolish to construct an impulsive apologetic on the basis of such views."[49] HP Pavilion dm4t-1000 CTO Battery In 1992, it was reported in the news that the Catholic Church had turned around towards vindicating Galileo[51]: Thanks to his intuition as a brilliant physicist and by relying on different arguments, Galileo, HP Pavilion Dm4t-1100 Batterywho practically invented the experimental method, understood why only the sun could function as the centre of the world, as it was then known, that is to say, as a planetary system. The error of the theologians of the time, when they maintained the centrality of the Earth, was to think that our understanding of the physical world's structure was, HP Pavilion dm4t-1100 CTO Battery in some way, imposed by the literal sense of Sacred Scripture.... —Pope John Paul II, L'Osservatore Romano N. 44 (1264) - November 4, 1992HP Pavilion dm4t-1200 CTO Battery In 2000, Pope John Paul II issued a formal apology for all the mistakes committed by some Catholics in the last 2,000 years of the Catholic Church's history, including the trial of Galileo among others.[52][53] HP Pavilion dm4t Battery