Albert Einstein and Albert Einstein College of Medicine

Albert Einstein ( /ˈælbərt ˈaɪnstaɪn/; German: [ˈalbɐt ˈaɪnʃtaɪn] ( listen); 14 March 1879 – 18 April 1955) was a German theoretical physicist who developed the theory of general relativity, HP Pavilion dv7-1157cl Battery effecting a revolution in physics. For this achievement, Einstein is often regarded as the father of modern physics.[2][3] While best known for his mass–energy equivalence formula E = mc2 (which has been dubbed "the world's most famous equation"),[4] he received the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his services to theoretical physics, HP Pavilion dv7-1157es Batteryand especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect".[5] The latter was pivotal in establishing quantum theory within physics. Near the beginning of his career, Einstein thought that Newtonian mechanics was no longer enough to reconcile the laws of classical mechanics with the laws of the electromagnetic field. HP Pavilion dv7-1160eb BatteryThis led to the development of his special theory of relativity. He realized, however, that the principle of relativity could also be extended to gravitational fields, and with his subsequent theory of gravitation in 1916, he published a paper on the general theory of relativity. He continued to deal with problems of statistical mechanics and quantum theory, HP Pavilion dv7-1160ed Battery which led to his explanations of particle theory and the motion of molecules. He also investigated the thermal properties of light which laid the foundation of the photon theory of light. In 1917, Einstein applied the general theory of relativity to model the structure of the universe as a whole. HP Pavilion dv7-1160eg Battery [6] He was visiting the United States when Adolf Hitler came to power in 1933, and did not go back to Germany, where he had been a professor at the Berlin Academy of Sciences. He settled in the U.S., becoming a citizen in 1940.[7] On the eve of World War II, he helped alert President Franklin D. HP Pavilion dv7-1160ek Battery Roosevelt that Germany might be developing an atomic weapon, and recommended that the U.S. begin similar research; this eventually led to what would become the Manhattan Project. Einstein was in support of defending the Allied forces, but largely denounced using the new discovery of nuclear fission as a weapon. Later, HP Pavilion dv7-1160eo Battery together with Bertrand Russell, Einstein signed the Russell–Einstein Manifesto, which highlighted the danger of nuclear weapons. Einstein was affiliated with the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey, until his death in 1955. Einstein published more than 300 scientific papers along with over 150 non-scientific worksHP Pavilion dv7-1160ep Battery.[6][8] His great intelligence and originality have made the word "Einstein" synonymous with genius.[9] Biography Early life and education Einstein at the age of three in 1882HP Pavilion dv7-1160er Battery Albert Einstein in 1893 (age 14) Einstein's matriculation certificate at the age of 17, showing his final grades from the Aargau Kantonsschule (on a scale of 1-6). Albert Einstein was born in Ulm, HP Pavilion dv7-1160es Batteryin the Kingdom of Württemberg in the German Empire on 14 March 1879.[10] His father was Hermann Einstein, a salesman and engineer. His mother was Pauline Einstein (née Koch). In 1880, the family moved to Munich, HP Pavilion dv7-1165eb Battery where his father and his uncle founded Elektrotechnische Fabrik J. Einstein & Cie, a company that manufactured electrical equipment based on direct current.[10] The Einsteins were non-observant Jews. Albert attended a Catholic elementary school from the age of five for three years. HP Pavilion dv7-1165eg Battery Later, at the age of eight, Einstein was transferred to the Luitpold Gymnasium where he received advanced primary and secondary school education until he left Germany seven years later.[11] Although it has been thought that Einstein had early speech difficulties, this is disputed by the Albert Einstein Archives, and he excelled at the first school that he attended. HP Pavilion dv7-1165er Battery [12] His father once showed him a pocket compass; Einstein realized that there must be something causing the needle to move, despite the apparent "empty space".[13] As he grew, Einstein built models and mechanical devices for fun and began to show a talent for mathematics. HP Pavilion dv7-1166eg Battery [10] When Einstein was ten years old Max Talmud (later changed to Max Talmey), a poor Jewish medical student from Poland, was introduced to the Einstein family by his brother, and during weekly visits over the next five years he gave the boy popular books on science, mathematical texts and philosophical writings. HP Pavilion dv7-1169er BatteryThese included Immanuel Kant's Critique of Pure Reason and Euclid's Elements (which Einstein called the "holy little geometry book").[14][15][fn 1] In 1894, his father's company failed: direct current (DC) lost the War of Currents to alternating current (AC). HP Pavilion dv7-1170eg Battery In search of business, the Einstein family moved to Italy, first to Milan and then, a few months later, to Pavia. When the family moved to Pavia, Einstein stayed in Munich to finish his studies at the Luitpold Gymnasium. HP Pavilion dv7-1170el Battery His father intended for him to pursue electrical engineering, but Einstein clashed with authorities and resented the school's regimen and teaching method. He later wrote that the spirit of learning and creative thought were lost in strict rote learning. At the end of December 1894 he travelled to Italy to join his family in Pavia, convincing the school to let him go by using a doctor's note. HP Pavilion dv7-1170eo Battery [17] It was during his time in Italy that he wrote a short essay with the title "On the Investigation of the State of the Ether in a Magnetic Field."[18][19] In late summer 1895, at the age of sixteen, Einstein sat the entrance examinations for the Swiss Federal Polytechnic in Zurich (later the Eidgenössische Polytechnische Schule). He failed to reach the required standard in several subjects, HP Pavilion dv7-1170ez Battery but obtained exceptional grades in physics and mathematics.[20] On the advice of the Principal of the Polytechnic, he attended the Aargau Cantonal School in Aarau, Switzerland, in 1895-96 to complete his secondary schooling. While lodging with the family of Professor Jost Winteler, he fell in love with Winteler's daughter, HP Pavilion dv7-1170us Battery Marie. (His sister Maja later married the Wintelers' son, Paul.)[21] In January 1896, with his father's approval, he renounced his citizenship in the German Kingdom of Württemberg to avoid military service.[22] In September 1896 he passed the Swiss Matura with mostly good grades (gaining maximum grade 6 in physics and mathematical subjects, HP Pavilion dv7-1172eg Batteryon a scale 1-6),[23] and though still only seventeen he enrolled in the four year mathematics and physics teaching diploma program at the Zurich Polytechnic. Marie Winteler moved to Olsberg, Switzerland for a teaching post. Einstein's future wife, Mileva Marić, HP Pavilion dv7-1173er Battery also enrolled at the Polytechnic that same year, the only woman among the six students in the mathematics and physics section of the teaching diploma course. Over the next few years, Einstein and Marić's friendship developed into romance, and they read books together on extra-curricular physics in which Einstein was taking an increasing interest. HP Pavilion dv7-1174ca BatteryIn 1900 Einstein was awarded the Zurich Polytechnic teaching diploma, but Marić failed the examination with a poor grade in the mathematics component, theory of functions.[24] There have been claims that Marić collaborated with Einstein on his celebrated 1905 papers,[25][26] but historians of physics who have studied the issue find no evidence that she made any substantive contributions. HP Pavilion dv7-1175eg Battery [27][28][29][30] Marriages and children Main article: Einstein family In early 1902, Einstein and Mileva Marić (Милева Марић) had a daughter they named Lieserl in their correspondence, HP Pavilion dv7-1175eo Batterywho was born in Novi Sad where Marić's parents lived.[31] Her full name is not known, and her fate is uncertain after 1903.[32] Einstein and Marić married in January 1903. In May 1904, the couple's first son, Hans Albert Einstein, HP Pavilion dv7-1175er Battery was born in Bern, Switzerland. Their second son, Eduard, was born in Zurich in July 1910. In 1914, Einstein moved to Berlin, while his wife remained in Zurich with their sons. Marić and Einstein divorced on 14 February 1919, having lived apart for five years. HP Pavilion dv7-1175nr Battery Einstein married Elsa Löwenthal (née Einstein) on 2 June 1919, after having had a relationship with her since 1912. She was his first cousin maternally and his second cousin paternally. In 1933, they emigrated permanently to the United States. In 1935, Elsa Einstein was diagnosed with heart and kidney problems and died in December 1936.[33] HP Pavilion dv7-1177ca Battery Patent office Left to right: Conrad Habicht, Maurice Solovine and Einstein, who founded the Olympia Academy Einstein's home in BernHP Pavilion dv7-1179er Battery After graduating, Einstein spent almost two frustrating years searching for a teaching post, but a former classmate's father helped him secure a job in Bern, at the Federal Office for Intellectual Property, the patent office, as an assistant examiner. HP Pavilion dv7-1180eg Battery [34] He evaluated patent applications for electromagnetic devices. In 1903, Einstein's position at the Swiss Patent Office became permanent, although he was passed over for promotion until he "fully mastered machine technology".[35] Much of his work at the patent office related to questions about transmission of electric signals and electrical-mechanical synchronization of time, HP Pavilion dv7-1180eo Battery two technical problems that show up conspicuously in the thought experiments that eventually led Einstein to his radical conclusions about the nature of light and the fundamental connection between space and time.[36] With a few friends he met in Bern, HP Pavilion dv7-1183cl Battery Einstein started a small discussion group, self-mockingly named "The Olympia Academy", which met regularly to discuss science and philosophy. Their readings included the works of Henri Poincaré, Ernst Mach, and David Hume, which influenced his scientific and philosophical outlook. Academic careerHP Pavilion dv7-1190eg Battery Einstein's official 1921 portrait after receiving the Nobel Prize in Physics. During 1901, the paper "Folgerungen aus den Kapillarität Erscheinungen" ("Conclusions from the Capillarity Phenomena") was published in the prestigious Annalen der Physik. HP Pavilion dv7-1190eo Battery [37] On 30 April 1905, Einstein completed his thesis, with Alfred Kleiner, Professor of Experimental Physics, serving as pro-forma advisor. Einstein was awarded a PhD by the University of Zurich. His dissertation was entitled "A New Determination of Molecular Dimensions".[38][39] That same year, which has been called Einstein's annus mirabilis (miracle year), HP Pavilion dv7-1190er Battery he published four groundbreaking papers, on the photoelectric effect, Brownian motion, special relativity, and the equivalence of matter and energy, which were to bring him to the notice of the academic world. By 1908, he was recognized as a leading scientist, HP Pavilion dv7-1190es Battery and he was appointed lecturer at the University of Bern. The following year, he quit the patent office and the lectureship to take the position of physics docent [40] at the University of Zurich. He became a full professor at Karl-Ferdinand University in Prague in 1911. In 1914, HP Pavilion dv7-1195eg Battery he returned to Germany after being appointed director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics (1914–1932)[41] and a professor at the Humboldt University of Berlin, with a special clause in his contract that freed him from most teaching obligations. He became a member of the Prussian Academy of Sciences. HP Pavilion dv7-1195eo Battery In 1916, Einstein was appointed president of the German Physical Society (1916–1918).[42][43] During 1911, he had calculated that, based on his new theory of general relativity, light from another star would be bent by the Sun's gravity. HP Pavilion dv7-1195er Battery That prediction was claimed confirmed by observations made by a British expedition led by Sir Arthur Eddington during the solar eclipse of 29 May 1919. International media reports of this made Einstein world famous. On 7 November 1919, HP Pavilion dv7-1196eg Battery the leading British newspaper The Times printed a banner headline that read: "Revolution in Science – New Theory of the Universe – Newtonian Ideas Overthrown".[44] (Much later, questions were raised whether the measurements had been accurate enough to support Einstein's theory). HP Pavilion dv7-1198eg Battery In 1921, Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for his explanation of the photoelectric effect, as relativity was considered still somewhat controversial. He also received the Copley Medal from the Royal Society in 1925. Travels abroadHP Pavilion dv7-1199ec Battery Einstein visited New York City for the first time on 2 April 1921, where he received an official welcome by the Mayor, followed by three weeks of lectures and receptions. He went on to deliver several lectures at Columbia University and Princeton University, HP Pavilion dv7-1199ed Battery and in Washington he accompanied representatives of the National Academy of Science on a visit to the White House. On his return to Europe he was the guest of the British statesman and philosopher Viscount Haldane in London, where he met several renowned scientific, intellectual and political figures, and delivered a lecture at Kings CollegeHP Pavilion dv7-1199ef Battery.[45] In 1922, he traveled throughout Asia and later to Palestine, as part of a six-month excursion and speaking tour. His travels included Singapore, Ceylon, and Japan, where he gave a series of lectures to thousands of Japanese. His first lecture in Tokyo lasted four hours, HP Pavilion dv7-1199eg Batteryafter which he met the emperor and empress at the Imperial Palace where thousands came to watch. Einstein later gave his impressions of the Japanese in a letter to his sons:[46]:307 "Of all the people I have met, I like the Japanese most, as they are modest, intelligent, considerate, and have a feel for art."[46]:308HP Pavilion dv7-1199el Battery On his return voyage, he also visited Palestine for 12 days in what would become his only visit to that region. "He was greeted with great British pomp, as if he were a head of state rather than a theoretical physicist", writes Isaacson. This included a cannon salute upon his arrival at the residence of the British high commissioner, HP Pavilion dv7-1199eo Battery Sir Herbert Samuel. During one reception given to him, the building was "stormed by throngs who wanted to hear him". In Einstein's talk to the audience, he expressed his happiness over the event: I consider this the greatest day of my life. Before, I have always found something to regret in the Jewish soul, HP Pavilion dv7-1199es Battery and that is the forgetfulness of its own people. Today, I have been made happy by the sight of the Jewish people learning to recognize themselves and to make themselves recognized as a force in the world.[47]:308. Love of musicHP Pavilion dv7-1199ev Battery Einstein developed an appreciation of music at an early age. His mother played the piano reasonably well and wanted her son to learn the violin, not only to instill in him a love of music but also to help him assimilate within German culture. According to conductor Leon Botstein, HP Pavilion dv7-1199ew BatteryEinstein is said to have begun playing when he was five, but didn't enjoy trying to learn it at that age.[48] When he turned thirteen, however, he discovered the violin sonatas of Mozart. "Einstein fell in love" with Mozart's music, notes Botstein, and learned to play music more willingly. According to Einstein, HP Pavilion dv7-1199ez Batteryhe taught himself to play by "ever practicing systematically," adding that "Love is a better teacher than a sense of duty."[48] At age seventeen, he was heard by a school examiner in Aarau as he played Beethoven's violin sonatas, the examiner stating afterward that his playing was "remarkable and revealing of 'great insight.'" HP Pavilion dv7-1200 BatteryWhat struck the examiner, writes Botstein, was that Einstein "displayed a deep love of the music, a quality that was and remains in short supply. Music possessed an unusual meaning for this student."[48] Botstein notes that music assumed a pivotal and permanent role in Einstein's life from that period on. HP Pavilion dv7-1200eg Battery Although the idea of becoming a professional was not on his mind at any time, he did play chamber music with others, and performed for private audiences and friends. Chamber music also became a regular part of his social life while living in Bern, Zurich, and Berlin, where he played with Max Planck and his son, HP Pavilion dv7-1200eo Battery among others. Near the end of his life, while living in Princeton, the young Juilliard Quartet visited him and he joined them playing his violin, although they slowed the tempo to accommodate his lesser abilities. However, notes Botstein, the quartet was "impressed by Einstein's level of coordination and intonation."[48] HP Pavilion dv7-1201ef Battery Emigration Cartoon of Einstein, who has shed his "Pacifism" wings, standing next to a pillar labeled "World Peace." He is rolling up his sleeves and holding a sword labeled "Preparedness" (circa 1933). HP Pavilion dv7-1201eg Battery In 1933, Einstein decided to emigrate to the United States due to the rise to power of the Nazis under Germany's new chancellor, Adolf Hitler.[49] While visiting American universities in April, 1933, he learned that the new German government had passed a law barring Jews from holding any official positions, HP Pavilion dv7-1201tx Battery including teaching at universities. A month later, the Nazi book burnings occurred, with Einstein's works being among those burnt, and Nazi propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels proclaimed, "Jewish intellectualism is dead."[47] Einstein also learned that his name was on a list of assassination targets, HP Pavilion dv7-1201xx Battery with a "$5,000 bounty on his head." One German magazine included him in a list of enemies of the German regime with the phrase, "not yet hanged".[47] Einstein was undertaking his third two-month visiting professorship at the California Institute of Technology when Hitler came to power in Germany. HP Pavilion dv7-1202ef BatteryOn his return to Europe in March 1933 he resided in Belgium for some months, before temporarily moving to England.[50] He took up a position at the Institute for Advanced Study at Princeton, New Jersey,[51] an affiliation that lasted until his death in 1955. He was one of the four first selected (two of the others being John von Neumann and Kurt Gödel). HP Pavilion dv7-1202tx Battery At the institute, he soon developed a close friendship with Gödel. The two would take long walks together discussing their work. His last assistant was Bruria Kaufman, who later became a renowned physicist. During this period, Einstein tried to develop a unified field theory and to refute the accepted interpretation of quantum physics, HP Pavilion dv7-1203ef Battery both unsuccessfully. Other scientists also fled to America. Among them were Nobel laureates and professors of theoretical physics. With so many other Jewish scientists now forced by circumstances to live in America, often working side by side, Einstein wrote to a friend, "For me the most beautiful thing is to be in contact with a few fine Jews—a few millennia of a civilized past do mean something after all." HP Pavilion dv7-1203em Battery In another letter he writes, "In my whole life I have never felt so Jewish as now."[47] World War II and the Manhattan Project In 1939, a group of Hungarian scientists that included emigre physicist Leó Szilárd attempted to alert Washington of ongoing Nazi atomic bomb research. HP Pavilion dv7-1203tx BatteryThe group's warnings were discounted.[52] Einstein and Szilárd, along with other refugees such as Edward Teller and Eugene Wigner, "regarded it as their responsibility to alert Americans to the possibility that German scientists might win the race to build an atomic bomb, and to warn that Hitler would be more than willing to resort to such a weapon. HP Pavilion dv7-1204ef Battery"[46]:630[53] In the summer of 1939, a few months before the beginning of World War II in Europe, Einstein was persuaded to lend his prestige by writing a letter with Szilárd to President Franklin D. Roosevelt to alert him of the possibility. The letter also recommended that the U.S. HP Pavilion dv7-1204eg Batterygovernment pay attention to and become directly involved in uranium research and associated chain reaction research. The letter is believed to be "arguably the key stimulus for the U.S. adoption of serious investigations into nuclear weapons on the eve of the U.S. entry into World War II"HP Pavilion dv7-1204tx Battery.[54] President Roosevelt could not take the risk of allowing Hitler to possess atomic bombs first. As a result of Einstein's letter and his meetings with Roosevelt, the U.S. entered the "race" to develop the bomb, drawing on its "immense material, financial, and scientific resources" to initiate the Manhattan Project. It became the only country to successfully develop an atomic bomb during World War II. HP Pavilion dv7-1205ef Battery For Einstein, "war was a disease . . . [and] he called for resistance to war." But in 1933, after Hitler assumed full power in Germany, "he renounced pacifism altogether . . . In fact, he urged the Western powers to prepare themselves against another German onslaught. HP Pavilion dv7-1205eg Battery"[55]:110 In 1954, a year before his death, Einstein said to his old friend, Linus Pauling, "I made one great mistake in my life — when I signed the letter to President Roosevelt recommending that atom bombs be made; but there was some justification — the danger that the Germans would make them..."[56] U.S. citizenshipHP Pavilion dv7-1205eo Battery Accepting U.S. citizenship, 1940 Einstein became an American citizen in 1940. Not long after settling into his career at Princeton, he expressed his appreciation of the "meritocracy" in American culture when compared to Europe. According to Isaacson, HP Pavilion dv7-1205tx Batteryhe recognized the "right of individuals to say and think what they pleased", without social barriers, and as result, the individual was "encouraged" to be more creative, a trait he valued from his own early education. Einstein writes: What makes the new arrival devoted to this country is the democratic trait among the people. HP Pavilion dv7-1206ef BatteryNo one humbles himself before another person or class. . . American youth has the good fortune not to have its outlook troubled by outworn traditions.[47]:432 As a member of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) at Princeton who campaigned for the civil rights of African Americans, HP Pavilion dv7-1206el Battery Einstein corresponded with civil rights activist W. E. B. Du Bois, and in 1946 Einstein called racism America's "worst disease".[57] He later stated, "Race prejudice has unfortunately become an American tradition which is uncritically handed down from one generation to the next. The only remedies are enlightenment and education".[58] HP Pavilion dv7-1206ez Battery After the death of Israel's first president, Chaim Weizmann, in November 1952, Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion offered Einstein the position of President of Israel, a mostly ceremonial post.[59] The offer was presented by Israel's ambassador in Washington, Abba Eban, HP Pavilion dv7-1206tx Batterywho explained that the offer "embodies the deepest respect which the Jewish people can repose in any of its sons".[46]:522 However, Einstein declined, and wrote in his response that he was "deeply moved", and "at once saddened and ashamed" that he could not accept it: All my life I have dealt with objective matters, HP Pavilion dv7-1207ef Battery hence I lack both the natural aptitude and the experience to deal properly with people and to exercise official function. I am the more distressed over these circumstances because my relationship with the Jewish people became my strongest human tie once I achieved complete clarity about our precarious position among the nations of the world. HP Pavilion dv7-1207tx Battery [46]:522[59][60] Death The New York World-Telegram announces Einstein's death on 18 April 1955. On 17 April 1955, Albert Einstein experienced internal bleeding caused by the rupture of an abdominal aortic aneurysm, HP Pavilion dv7-1208ef Battery which had previously been reinforced surgically by Dr. Rudolph Nissen in 1948.[61] He took the draft of a speech he was preparing for a television appearance commemorating the State of Israel's seventh anniversary with him to the hospital, but he did not live long enough to complete it.[62] Einstein refused surgery, HP Pavilion dv7-1208ez Battery saying: "I want to go when I want. It is tasteless to prolong life artificially. I have done my share, it is time to go. I will do it elegantly."[63] He died in Princeton Hospital early the next morning at the age of 76, having continued to work until near the end. During the autopsy, HP Pavilion dv7-1208tx Batterythe pathologist of Princeton Hospital, Thomas Stoltz Harvey, removed Einstein's brain for preservation without the permission of his family, in the hope that the neuroscience of the future would be able to discover what made Einstein so intelligent.[64] Einstein's remains were cremated and his ashes were scattered at an undisclosed location. HP Pavilion dv7-1209ef Battery [65][66] In his lecture at Einstein's memorial, nuclear physicist Robert Oppenheimer summarized his impression of him as a person: "He was almost wholly without sophistication and wholly without worldliness . . . There was always with him a wonderful purity at once childlike and profoundly stubborn."[55] HP Pavilion dv7-1209em Battery Scientific career Albert Einstein in 1904 The photoelectric effect. Incoming photons on the left strike a metal plate (bottom), and eject electrons, HP Pavilion dv7-1209tx Batterydepicted as flying off to the right. Throughout his life, Einstein published hundreds of books and articles.[8][10] In addition to the work he did by himself he also collaborated with other scientists on additional projects including the Bose–Einstein statistics, the Einstein refrigerator and others.[67] HP Pavilion dv7-1210ea Battery 1905 - Annus Mirabilis papers Main articles: Annus Mirabilis papers, Photoelectric effect, Special theory of relativity, and Mass–energy equivalence The Annus Mirabilis papers are four articles pertaining to the photoelectric effect (which gave rise to quantum theory), HP Pavilion dv7-1210ed Battery Brownian motion, the special theory of relativity, and E = mc2 that Albert Einstein published in the Annalen der Physik scientific journal in 1905. These four works contributed substantially to the foundation of modern physics and changed views on space, time, and matter. The four papers are: Thermodynamic fluctuations and statistical physicsHP Pavilion dv7-1210eg Battery Main articles: Statistical mechanics, thermal fluctuations, and statistical physics Albert Einstein's first paper[72] submitted in 1900 to Annalen der Physik was on capillary attraction. It was published in 1901 with the title "Folgerungen aus den Kapillarität Erscheinungen," HP Pavilion dv7-1210el Battery which translates as "Conclusions from the capillarity phenomena". Two papers he published in 1902–1903 (thermodynamics) attempted to interpret atomic phenomena from a statistical point of view. These papers were the foundation for the 1905 paper on Brownian motion, HP Pavilion dv7-1210eo Battery which showed that Brownian movement can be construed as firm evidence that molecules exist. His research in 1903 and 1904 was mainly concerned with the effect of finite atomic size on diffusion phenomena.[72] General principles He articulated the principle of relativity. HP Pavilion dv7-1210er Battery This was understood by Hermann Minkowski to be a generalization of rotational invariance from space to space-time. Other principles postulated by Einstein and later vindicated are the principle of equivalence and the principle of adiabatic invariance of the quantum number. Theory of relativity and HP Pavilion dv7-1210et Battery Main article: History of special relativity Einstein's "Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper" ("On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies") was received on 30 June 1905 and published 26 September of that same year. It reconciles Maxwell's equations for electricity and magnetism with the laws of mechanics, HP Pavilion dv7-1210tx Battery by introducing major changes to mechanics close to the speed of light. This later became known as Einstein's special theory of relativity. Consequences of this include the time-space frame of a moving body appearing to slow down and contract (in the direction of motion) when measured in the frame of the observer. HP Pavilion dv7-1211ea BatteryThis paper also argued that the idea of a luminiferous aether – one of the leading theoretical entities in physics at the time – was superfluous.[73] In his paper on mass–energy equivalence Einstein produced E = mc2 from his special relativity equations. HP Pavilion dv7-1211tx Battery [74] Einstein's 1905 work on relativity remained controversial for many years, but was accepted by leading physicists, starting with Max Planck.[75][76] Photons and energy quanta Main articles: Photon and QuantumHP Pavilion dv7-1212ea Battery In a 1905 paper,[77] Einstein postulated that light itself consists of localized particles (quanta). Einstein's light quanta were nearly universally rejected by all physicists, including Max Planck and Niels Bohr. This idea only became universally accepted in 1919, with Robert Millikan's detailed experiments on the photoelectric effect, HP Pavilion dv7-1212tx Battery and with the measurement of Compton scattering. Einstein concluded that each wave of frequency f is associated with a collection of photons with energy hf each, where h is Planck's constant. He does not say much more, because he is not sure how the particles are related to the wave. But he does suggest that this idea would explain certain experimental results, HP Pavilion dv7-1213ea Batterynotably the photoelectric effect.[78] Quantized atomic vibrations Main article: Einstein solid In 1907 Einstein proposed a model of matter where each atom in a lattice structure is an independent harmonic oscillator. HP Pavilion dv7-1213tx Battery In the Einstein model, each atom oscillates independently – a series of equally spaced quantized states for each oscillator. Einstein was aware that getting the frequency of the actual oscillations would be different, but he nevertheless proposed this theory because it was a particularly clear demonstration that quantum mechanics could solve the specific heat problem in classical mechanics. HP Pavilion dv7-1214ea Battery Peter Debye refined this model.[79] Adiabatic principle and action-angle variables Main article: Old quantum theory Throughout the 1910s, quantum mechanics expanded in scope to cover many different systems. HP Pavilion dv7-1214tx BatteryAfter Ernest Rutherford discovered the nucleus and proposed that electrons orbit like planets, Niels Bohr was able to show that the same quantum mechanical postulates introduced by Planck and developed by Einstein would explain the discrete motion of electrons in atoms, and the periodic table of the elements. HP Pavilion dv7-1215ef Battery Einstein contributed to these developments by linking them with the 1898 arguments Wilhelm Wien had made. Wien had shown that the hypothesis of adiabatic invariance of a thermal equilibrium state allows all the blackbody curves at different temperature to be derived from one another by a simple shifting process. HP Pavilion dv7-1215eg BatteryEinstein noted in 1911 that the same adiabatic principle shows that the quantity which is quantized in any mechanical motion must be an adiabatic invariant. Arnold Sommerfeld identified this adiabatic invariant as the action variable of classical mechanics. HP Pavilion dv7-1215eo BatteryThe law that the action variable is quantized was a basic principle of the quantum theory as it was known between 1900 and 1925.[citation needed] Wave–particle duality Einstein at the Solvay Conference in 1911HP Pavilion dv7-1215er Battery Main article: Wave–particle duality Although the patent office promoted Einstein to Technical Examiner Second Class in 1906, he had not given up on academia. HP Pavilion dv7-1215ez BatteryIn 1908, he became a privatdozent at the University of Bern.[80] In "über die Entwicklung unserer Anschauungen über das Wesen und die Konstitution der Strahlung" ("The Development of Our Views on the Composition and Essence of Radiation"), on the quantization of light, and in an earlier 1909 paperHP Pavilion dv7-1215tx Battery, Einstein showed that Max Planck's energy quanta must have well-defined momenta and act in some respects as independent, point-like particles. This paper introduced the photon concept (although the name photon was introduced later by Gilbert N. Lewis in 1926) and inspired the notion of wave–particle duality in quantum mechanicsHP Pavilion dv7-1216tx Battery. Theory of critical opalescence Main article: Critical opalescence Einstein returned to the problem of thermodynamic fluctuations, giving a treatment of the density variations in a fluid at its critical point. HP Pavilion dv7-1217em Battery Ordinarily the density fluctuations are controlled by the second derivative of the free energy with respect to the density. At the critical point, this derivative is zero, leading to large fluctuations. The effect of density fluctuations is that light of all wavelengths is scattered, making the fluid look milky whiteHP Pavilion dv7-1220eb Battery. Einstein relates this to Raleigh scattering, which is what happens when the fluctuation size is much smaller than the wavelength, and which explains why the sky is blue.[81] Einstein quantitatively derived critical opalescence from a treatment of density fluctuations, HP Pavilion dv7-1220ed Batteryand demonstrated how both the effect and Rayleigh scattering originate from the atomistic constitution of matter. Zero-point energy Main article: Zero-point energy Einstein's physical intuition led him to note that Planck's oscillator energies had an incorrect zero point. HP Pavilion dv7-1220ef BatteryHe modified Planck's hypothesis by stating that the lowest energy state of an oscillator is equal to 1⁄2hf, to half the energy spacing between levels. This argument, which was made in 1913 in collaboration with Otto Stern, was based on the thermodynamics of a diatomic molecule which can split apart into two free atoms. HP Pavilion dv7-1220eg Battery General relativity and the Equivalence Principle Main article: History of general relativity See also: Principle of equivalence, Theory of relativity, and Einstein field equations Eddington’s photograph of a solar eclipse. HP Pavilion dv7-1220el Battery General relativity (GR) is a theory of gravitation that was developed by Albert Einstein between 1907 and 1915. According to general relativity, the observed gravitational attraction between masses results from the warping of space and time by those masses. HP Pavilion dv7-1220em Battery General relativity has developed into an essential tool in modern astrophysics. It provides the foundation for the current understanding of black holes, regions of space where gravitational attraction is so strong that not even light can escape. As Albert Einstein later said, HP Pavilion dv7-1220er Battery the reason for the development of general relativity was that the preference of inertial motions within special relativity was unsatisfactory, while a theory which from the outset prefers no state of motion (even accelerated ones) should appear more satisfactory.[82] So in 1908 he published an article on acceleration under special relativity. HP Pavilion dv7-1220es BatteryIn that article, he argued that free fall is really inertial motion, and that for a freefalling observer the rules of special relativity must apply. This argument is called the Equivalence principle. In the same article, Einstein also predicted the phenomenon of gravitational time dilation. HP Pavilion dv7-1220ew Battery In 1911, Einstein published another article expanding on the 1907 article, in which additional effects such as the deflection of light by massive bodies were predicted. Hole argument and Entwurf theory Main article: Hole argumentHP Pavilion dv7-1222ez Battery While developing general relativity, Einstein became confused about the gauge invariance in the theory. He formulated an argument that led him to conclude that a general relativistic field theory is impossible. He gave up looking for fully generally covariant tensor equations, HP Pavilion dv7-1223ca Battery and searched for equations that would be invariant under general linear transformations only. In June, 1913 the Entwurf ("draft") theory was the result of these investigations. As its name suggests, it was a sketch of a theory, with the equations of motion supplemented by additional gauge fixing conditions. HP Pavilion dv7-1225ef Battery Simultaneously less elegant and more difficult than general relativity, after more than two years of intensive work Einstein abandoned the theory in November, 1915 after realizing that the hole argument was mistaken.[83] CosmologyHP Pavilion dv7-1225eo Battery Main article: Cosmology In 1917, Einstein applied the General theory of relativity to model the structure of the universe as a whole. He wanted the universe to be eternal and unchanging, HP Pavilion dv7-1225ez Battery but this type of universe is not consistent with relativity. To fix this, Einstein modified the general theory by introducing a new notion, the cosmological constant. With a positive cosmological constant, the universe could be an eternal static sphere.[84] Einstein in his office at the University of Berlin. HP Pavilion dv7-1228ca Battery Einstein believed a spherical static universe is philosophically preferred, because it would obey Mach's principle. He had shown that general relativity incorporates Mach's principle to a certain extent in frame dragging by gravitomagnetic fields, but he knew that Mach's idea would not work if space goes on forever. HP Pavilion dv7-1230eb BatteryIn a closed universe, he believed that Mach's principle would hold. Mach's principle has generated much controversy over the years. Modern quantum theory Main article: Schrödinger equationHP Pavilion dv7-1230ed Battery Einstein was displeased with quantum theory and mechanics, despite its acceptance by other physicists, stating "God doesn't play with dice." As Einstein passed away at the age of 76 he still would not accept quantum theory. [85] In 1917, at the height of his work on relativity, HP Pavilion dv7-1230eg Battery Einstein published an article in Physikalische Zeitschrift that proposed the possibility of stimulated emission, the physical process that makes possible the maser and the laser.[86] This article showed that the statistics of absorption and emission of light would only be consistent with Planck's distribution law if the emission of light into a mode with n photons would be enhanced statistically compared to the emission of light into an empty mode. HP Pavilion dv7-1230eo Battery This paper was enormously influential in the later development of quantum mechanics, because it was the first paper to show that the statistics of atomic transitions had simple laws. Einstein discovered Louis de Broglie's work, and supported his ideas, which were received skeptically at first. In another major paper from this era, HP Pavilion dv7-1230et BatteryEinstein gave a wave equation for de Broglie waves, which Einstein suggested was the Hamilton–Jacobi equation of mechanics. This paper would inspire Schrödinger's work of 1926. Bose–Einstein statistics Main article: Bose–Einstein condensationHP Pavilion dv7-1230ew Battery In 1924, Einstein received a description of a statistical model from Indian physicist Satyendra Nath Bose, based on a counting method that assumed that light could be understood as a gas of indistinguishable particles. Einstein noted that Bose's statistics applied to some atoms as well as to the proposed light particles, HP Pavilion dv7-1230ez Batteryand submitted his translation of Bose's paper to the Zeitschrift für Physik. Einstein also published his own articles describing the model and its implications, among them the Bose–Einstein condensate phenomenon that some particulates should appear at very low temperatures. HP Pavilion dv7-1232nr Battery [87] It was not until 1995 that the first such condensate was produced experimentally by Eric Allin Cornell and Carl Wieman using ultra-cooling equipment built at the NIST–JILA laboratory at the University of Colorado at Boulder.[88] Bose–Einstein statistics are now used to describe the behaviors of any assembly of bosons. HP Pavilion dv7-1233eo Battery Einstein's sketches for this project may be seen in the Einstein Archive in the library of the Leiden University.[67] Energy momentum pseudotensor Main article: Stress-energy-momentum pseudotensor General relativity includes a dynamical spacetime, HP Pavilion dv7-1235eo Batteryso it is difficult to see how to identify the conserved energy and momentum. Noether's theorem allows these quantities to be determined from a Lagrangian with translation invariance, but general covariance makes translation invariance into something of a gauge symmetry. HP Pavilion dv7-1236ez Battery The energy and momentum derived within general relativity by Noether's presecriptions do not make a real tensor for this reason. Einstein argued that this is true for fundamental reasons, because the gravitational field could be made to vanish by a choice of coordinates. HP Pavilion dv7-1240eb Battery He maintained that the non-covariant energy momentum pseudotensor was in fact the best description of the energy momentum distribution in a gravitational field. This approach has been echoed by Lev Landau and Evgeny Lifshitz, and others, and has become standard. HP Pavilion dv7-1240ed Battery The use of non-covariant objects like pseudotensors was heavily criticized in 1917 by Erwin Schrödinger and others. Unified field theory Main article: Classical unified field theoriesHP Pavilion dv7-1240ek Battery Following his research on general relativity, Einstein entered into a series of attempts to generalize his geometric theory of gravitation to include electromagnetism as another aspect of a single entity. In 1950, he described his "unified field theory" in a Scientific American article entitled "On the Generalized Theory of Gravitation".HP Pavilion dv7-1240el Battery [89] Although he continued to be lauded for his work, Einstein became increasingly isolated in his research, and his efforts were ultimately unsuccessful. In his pursuit of a unification of the fundamental forces, Einstein ignored some mainstream developments in physics, most notably the strong and weak nuclear forces, which were not well understood until many years after his death. HP Pavilion dv7-1240eo Battery Mainstream physics, in turn, largely ignored Einstein's approaches to unification. Einstein's dream of unifying other laws of physics with gravity motivates modern quests for a theory of everything and in particular string theory, where geometrical fields emerge in a unified quantum-mechanical setting. HP Pavilion dv7-1240us Battery Wormholes Main article: Wormhole Einstein collaborated with others to produce a model of a wormhole. His motivation was to model elementary particles with charge as a solution of gravitational field equations, HP Pavilion dv7-1243cl Battery in line with the program outlined in the paper "Do Gravitational Fields play an Important Role in the Constitution of the Elementary Particles?". These solutions cut and pasted Schwarzschild black holes to make a bridge between two patches. If one end of a wormhole was positively charged, HP Pavilion dv7-1245ca Battery the other end would be negatively charged. These properties led Einstein to believe that pairs of particles and antiparticles could be described in this way. Einstein–Cartan theory Main article: Einstein–Cartan theoryHP Pavilion dv7-1245dx Battery In order to incorporate spinning point particles into general relativity, the affine connection needed to be generalized to include an antisymmetric part, called the torsion. This modification was made by Einstein and Cartan in the 1920s. Equations of motionHP Pavilion dv7-1245ef Battery Main article: Einstein–Infeld–Hoffmann equations The theory of general relativity has a fundamental law  – the Einstein equations which describe how space curves, the geodesic equation which describes how particles move may be derived from the Einstein equations. HP Pavilion dv7-1245eo Battery Since the equations of general relativity are non-linear, a lump of energy made out of pure gravitational fields, like a black hole, would move on a trajectory which is determined by the Einstein equations themselves, HP Pavilion dv7-1247cl Batterynot by a new law. So Einstein proposed that the path of a singular solution, like a black hole, would be determined to be a geodesic from general relativity itself. This was established by Einstein, Infeld, and Hoffmann for pointlike objects without angular momentum, and by Roy Kerr for spinning objects. HP Pavilion dv7-1249ef Battery Other investigations Main article: Einstein's unsuccessful investigations Einstein conducted other investigations that were unsuccessful and abandoned. These pertain to force, superconductivity, HP Pavilion dv7-1250eb Battery gravitational waves, and other research. Please see the main article for details. Collaboration with other scientists The 1927 Solvay Conference in Brussels, a gathering of the world's top physicists. Einstein in the centerHP Pavilion dv7-1250ed Battery. In addition to long time collaborators Leopold Infeld, Nathan Rosen, Peter Bergmann and others, Einstein also had some one-shot collaborations with various scientists. Einstein–de Haas experiment Main article: Einstein–de Haas effectHP Pavilion dv7-1250eg Battery Einstein and De Haas demonstrated that magnetization is due to the motion of electrons, nowadays known to be the spin. In order to show this, they reversed the magnetization in an iron bar suspended on a torsion pendulum. They confirmed that this leads the bar to rotate, because the electron's angular momentum changes as the magnetization changesHP Pavilion dv7-1250en Battery. This experiment needed to be sensitive, because the angular momentum associated with electrons is small, but it definitively established that electron motion of some kind is responsible for magnetization. Schrödinger gas model Einstein suggested to Erwin Schrödinger that he might be able to reproduce the statistics of a Bose–Einstein gas by considering a box. HP Pavilion dv7-1250eo BatteryThen to each possible quantum motion of a particle in a box associate an independent harmonic oscillator. Quantizing these oscillators, each level will have an integer occupation number, which will be the number of particles in it. This formulation is a form of second quantization, HP Pavilion dv7-1250ep Batterybut it predates modern quantum mechanics. Erwin Schrödinger applied this to derive the thermodynamic properties of a semiclassical ideal gas. Schrödinger urged Einstein to add his name as co-author, although Einstein declined the invitation.[90] Einstein refrigeratorHP Pavilion dv7-1250es Battery Main article: Einstein refrigerator In 1926, Einstein and his former student Leó Szilárd co-invented (and in 1930, patented) the Einstein refrigerator. This absorption refrigerator was then revolutionary for having no moving parts and using only heat as an input. HP Pavilion dv7-1251eg Battery [91] On 11 November 1930, U.S. Patent 1,781,541 was awarded to Albert Einstein and Leó Szilárd for the refrigerator. Their invention was not immediately put into commercial production, as the most promising of their patents were quickly bought up by the Swedish company Electrolux to protect its refrigeration technology from competition.[92] HP Pavilion dv7-1251xx Battery Bohr versus Einstein Main article: Bohr–Einstein debates Einstein and Niels Bohr, 1925 The Bohr–Einstein debates were a series of public disputes about quantum mechanics between Albert Einstein and Niels Bohr who were two of its founders. HP Pavilion dv7-1252eg BatteryTheir debates are remembered because of their importance to the philosophy of science.[93][94][95] Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen paradox Main article: EPR paradox In 1935, HP Pavilion dv7-1253ca Battery Einstein returned to the question of quantum mechanics. He considered how a measurement on one of two entangled particles would affect the other. He noted, along with his collaborators, that by performing different measurements on the distant particle, either of position or momentum, HP Pavilion dv7-1253eo Batterydifferent properties of the entangled partner could be discovered without disturbing it in any way. He then used a hypothesis of local realism to conclude that the other particle had these properties already determined. The principle he proposed is that if it is possible to determine what the answer to a position or momentum measurement would be, HP Pavilion dv7-1253xx Batterywithout in any way disturbing the particle, then the particle actually has values of position or momentum. This principle distilled the essence of Einstein's objection to quantum mechanics. As a physical principle, it was shown to be incorrect when the Aspect experiment of 1982 confirmed Bell's theorem, HP Pavilion dv7-1255eo Batterywhich had been promulgated in 1964. Political and religious views Albert Einstein, seen here with his wife Elsa Einstein and Zionist leaders, including future President of Israel Chaim Weizmann, his wife Dr. Vera Weizmann, HP Pavilion dv7-1260ek Battery Menahem Ussishkin, and Ben-Zion Mossinson on arrival in New York City in 1921. Albert Einstein's political views emerged publicly in the middle of the 20th century due to his fame and reputation for genius. Einstein offered to and was called on to give judgments and opinions on matters often unrelated to theoretical physics or mathematics (see main article). HP Pavilion dv7-1260eo Battery Einstein's views about religious belief have been collected from interviews and original writings. These views covered Judaism, theological determinism, agnosticism, and humanism. He also wrote much about ethical culture, opting for Spinoza's god over belief in a personal god. HP Pavilion dv7-1260es Battery Non-scientific legacy While travelling, Einstein wrote daily to his wife Elsa and adopted stepdaughters Margot and Ilse. The letters were included in the papers bequeathed to The Hebrew University. Margot Einstein permitted the personal letters to be made available to the public, HP Pavilion dv7-1260ew Batterybut requested that it not be done until twenty years after her death (she died in 1986[96]). Barbara Wolff, of The Hebrew University's Albert Einstein Archives, told the BBC that there are about 3,500 pages of private correspondence written between 1912 and 1955.[97] Einstein bequeathed the royalties from use of his image to The Hebrew University of Jerusalem. HP Pavilion dv7-1260us BatteryCorbis, successor to The Roger Richman Agency, licenses the use of his name and associated imagery, as agent for the university.[98] In popular culture Main article: Albert Einstein in popular culture In the period before World War II, HP Pavilion dv7-1261wm Battery Einstein was so well known in America that he would be stopped on the street by people wanting him to explain "that theory". He finally figured out a way to handle the incessant inquiries. He told his inquirers "Pardon me, sorry! Always I am mistaken for Professor Einstein."[99] HP Pavilion dv7-1262eg Battery Einstein has been the subject of or inspiration for many novels, films, plays, and works of music.[100] He is a favorite model for depictions of mad scientists and absent-minded professors; his expressive face and distinctive hairstyle have been widely copied and exaggerated. HP Pavilion dv7-1262us Battery Time magazine's Frederic Golden wrote that Einstein was "a cartoonist's dream come true".[101] Awards and honors Einstein received numerous awards and honors, including the Nobel Prize in Physics. Albert Einstein College of MedicineHP Pavilion dv7-1264nr Battery Albert Einstein College of Medicine (Einstein) is a graduate school of Yeshiva University. It is a not-for-profit, private, nonsectarian medical school located on the Jack and Pearl Resnick Campus in the Morris Park neighborhood of the borough of the Bronx of New York City. In addition to medical degrees, HP Pavilion dv7-1265eo BatteryEinstein offers graduate biomedical degrees through the Sue Golding Graduate Division. Allen M. Spiegel, M.D., has served as The Marilyn and Stanley M. Katz Dean since June 1, 2006.[1] Einstein’s main focal areas are medical education, HP Pavilion dv7-1267cl Battery basic research, and clinical investigation. During the 2011–2012 academic year, Einstein is home to 2,522 full-time faculty members, 724 M.D. students, 248 Ph.D. students attending the Sue Golding Graduate Division and 117 students in the combined M.D./Ph.D. program. In addition, HP Pavilion dv7-1270ca Battery there are 368 postdoctoral research fellows at the Belfer Institute for Advanced Biomedical Studies.[2] The medical school is known for its humanistic approach to its curriculum and training and for the diversity of its student body. HP Pavilion dv7-1270eg BatteryThe class of 2009 included 40 individuals from 19 countries and a group of 23 students who identify themselves as belonging to groups considered underrepresented in medicine.[3] Einstein is also a major biomedical and clinical research facility. Faculty members received nearly $170 million in funding from the National Institutes of Health in 2011. HP Pavilion dv7-1270eo Battery In addition, the NIH funds major research centers at Einstein in diabetes, cancer, liver disease, and AIDS.[4] Mission The mission of Albert Einstein College of Medicine is to prepare physicians and researchers to excel in the science and the art of medicine and basic, HP Pavilion dv7-1270es Batterytranslational and clinical investigation. Its founding mandate is to combine the pursuit of scientific excellence with a social mission to improve human health through engagement in local, national and global communities.[5] [edit]History Yeshiva University President Dr. Samuel Belkin began planning for a new medical school as early as 1945. HP Pavilion dv7-1270ez Battery Six years later, Dr. Belkin and New York City Mayor Vincent Impellitteri entered into an agreement to begin construction. At the same time, world-renowned physicist and humanitarian Albert Einstein sent a letter to Dr. Belkin. HP Pavilion dv7-1270us Battery He remarked that such an endeavor would be “unique” in that the school would “welcome students of all creeds and races.”[6] Two years later, on his 74th birthday, March 14, 1953, Albert Einstein agreed to attach his name to the medical school. The first classes began September 12, 1955, HP Pavilion dv7-1273cl Batteryand had a total of 56 students. At the time, it was the first new medical school to be erected within New York City since 1897. The Sue Golding Graduate Division was established in 1957 to offer Ph.D.s in biomedical disciplines.[7] The Medical Sciences Training Program (MSTP), HP Pavilion dv7-1275dx Battery a combined M.D./Ph.D. program, was first offered in 1964.[8] The C.R.T.P. (Clinical Research Training Program), which confers M.S. degrees in clinical research methods, began classes in July 1998.[9] [edit]Notable research and achievements The Michael F. Price Center for Genetic and Translational Medicine and Harold and Muriel Block Research Pavilion, 2008HP Pavilion dv7-1275eo Battery Source: Einstein website.[10] In 1964, Einstein was the first medical school in the United States to establish a Department of Genetics. HP Pavilion dv7-1279wm Battery In 1965, Einstein opened one of the first General Clinical Research Centers in the US, funded by the NIH. In 1974, Einstein's Liver Research Center – now the Marion Bessin Liver Research Center – was the first institute in the nation devoted to the study of liver disease and injury. HP Pavilion dv7-1280ec Battery In 1976, researchers at Einstein identified the mechanism of action of Taxol, one of the most significant cancer-treatment drugs ever developed. (Susan B. Horwitz, Ph.D.) In 1978, Einstein was designated a Diabetes Research and Training Center, one of 7 such comprehensive centers in the US. HP Pavilion dv7-1280eg Battery The Center has been home to a who's-who of diabetes investigators involved in seminal work on the insulin receptor, the mechanism of diabetes complications, on glucose toxicity, on brain control of metabolism, and on hypoglycemia as well as landmark studies such as the Diabetes Control and Complications Trial and the Diabetes Prevention Program. HP Pavilion dv7-1280es Battery In 1988, one of the first NIH-funded Centers for AIDS Research (CFARs) in the country was created at Einstein. Researchers at the center were the first to identify pediatric AIDS as a distinct disease and established the first day-care center in the world for children with AIDS. HP Pavilion dv7-1280ew Battery (Arye Rubinstein, M.D.) In 1994, Einstein became the only New York City medical school selected by the NIH to participate in the Women's Health Initiative, the largest research study of women's health ever undertaken. (Sylvia Wassertheil-Smoller, Ph.D., principal investigator) HP Pavilion dv7-1285dx Battery In 2006, Einstein became the only medical institution in the Northeast to serve as a research site for the Hispanic Community Health Study, the largest research study of Hispanic health ever conducted. (Sylvia Wassertheil-Smoller, Ph.D., principal investigator) HP Pavilion dv7-1289eg Battery Einstein researchers demonstrated the association between reduced levels of high-density lipoproteins (HDL), or "good" cholesterol, and heart disease. Einstein researchers identified a key missing neurotransmitter in the brains of patients with Alzheimer's diseaseHP Pavilion dv7-1290eg Battery, a finding that influenced all subsequent Alzheimer's disease research. (Peter Davies, Ph.D.) Researchers at Einstein discovered structural abnormalities of brain cells that explain deficiencies in cognitive development, greatly contributing to our understanding of mental retardation. (Dominick P. Purpura, M.D.) HP Pavilion dv7-1290eo Battery Einstein researchers helped discover the mechanisms responsible for the extraordinary diversity of antibodies and their remarkable precision in mounting an immune response. (Matthew D. Scharff, M.D.) Scientists at Einstein pioneered research that has led to improved methods of avoiding organ transplant rejection. HP Pavilion dv7-1298el Battery (Stanley G. Nathenson, M.D.) Einstein researchers are leaders in epidemiologic research in migraine and other types of headache. (Richard B. Lipton, M.D.) [edit]Leadership Allen M. Spiegel, M.D., HP Pavilion dv7-1299eb BatteryThe Marilyn and Stanley M. Katz Dean, June 1, 2006–present. Dr. Spiegel was previously the director of the National Institute of Diabetes & Digestive Diseases & Kidney Diseases (NIDDK) at the National Institutes of Health (NIH), where he worked for over 30 years. Dominick P. Purpura, M.D., The Marilyn and Stanley M. Katz Dean, HP Pavilion dv7-1299ed Battery 1984–2006. His 22 years as dean are a record for the head of a medical school.[11] Ernst R. Jaffé, M.D., acting dean, 1972–74, 1983–84. Ephraim Friedman, M.D., dean, 1974–83. Labe C. Scheinberg, M.D., dean, 1970–72. Harry H. Gordon, M.D., dean, 1967–70. HP Pavilion dv7-1299ef Battery Marcus D. Kogel, M.D., founding dean, 1953–67. [edit]Academic programs The school offers M.D.[1] and Ph.D. [2] degrees and has a Medical Scientist Training Program [3] that awards a combined M.D./Ph.D. degree. HP Pavilion dv7-1299el Battery Students pursuing the Ph.D or M.D./Ph.D. degree are offered full tuition remission and a stipend of $31,300.[12] At any given time there are approximately 724 medical students, 248 Ph.D. students, and 117 students pursuing a combined M.D./Ph.D. The College of Medicine also offers M.S. HP Pavilion dv7-1299es Batterydegrees in clinical research methods [4] and in bioethics [5], as well as a Master of Public Health [6] (MPH) program that focuses on community-based participatory research.[13] The school is known for its medical community promoting awareness, and humanism in social, ethical, HP Pavilion dv7-1299ew Battery and medical realms through its hospital affiliations, free ECHO health clinic [7], and Bronx community health fairs. It is currently ranked nationwide by U.S. News & World Report at #39 in research and #52 for primary care.[14] [edit]AffiliationsHP Pavilion dv7-1424nr Battery Albert Einstein College of Medicine is affiliated with seven medical centers: Montefiore Medical Center, [15] the University Hospital and academic medical center for Einstein; Jacobi Medical Center, Einstein’s founding hospital and first affiliate, and five other exceptional affiliates including Bronx Lebanon Hospital [8] and St. HP Pavilion dv7-1426nr BatteryBarnabas Hospital, Beth Israel Medical Center in Manhattan, North Shore-LIJ Health System on Long Island and Maimonides Medical Center in Brooklyn. The broad geographical reach of Einstein’s residency programs is a distinction not shared by other New York City medical schools. HP Pavilion dv7-1428ca Battery Through its affiliation network, Einstein runs the largest postgraduate medical training program in the US, offering some 155 residency and fellowship programs to more than 2,200 physicians in training. Einstein's Department of Family and Social Medicine (DFSM) offers the Residency Program in Social Medicine (RPSM, est. 1970) HP Pavilion dv7-1444us Battery, created to address the shortage of primary care clinicians trained to work in underserved communities. [9] Additionally, Einstein runs the Rose Kennedy Center. The Rose Kennedy Center for research and treatment to help persons who have developmental disabilities is considered a premier center in this type of work. HP Pavilion dv7-1448ca BatteryOf particular note are the occupational and physical therapy departments considered cutting edge in this area. [edit]Departments Urology The Division of Substance Abuse (DoSA) is the largest addiction treatment program in Bronx County, HP Pavilion dv7-1448dx Batterysecond largest public treatment program in New York State, and largest in the world operating under the auspices of a medical school. Serving over 3600 persons, with primary residence or work site in The Bronx, the Division provides comprehensive opioid addiction treatment at nine (9) community-based outpatient facilities located throughout the borough, HP Pavilion dv7-1450us Battery as well as ambulatory services for all substances of abuse at the Division’s Chemical Dependency Wellness Services program located in North and South Bronx facilities. The Division’s continuum of care includes: Addiction screening, HP Pavilion dv7-1451nr Battery assessment and diagnosis. Primary health care and behavioral health care. Medication-assisted treatment for opioid addiction, including methadone and buprenorphine. Medically supervised ambulatory chemical dependency wellness services to treat opioid drugs, cocaine, HP Pavilion dv7-1464nr Battery crystal meth, and other abused substances. HIV and Hepatitis C testing, primary care and case management. Vaccinations for Hepatitis A and B Directly observed preventive therapy for tuberculosis Specialized case management services for women and families, HP Pavilion dv7-1468nr Batteryincluding prenatal and gynecological care. Intensive vocational services that promote self-sufficiency. Sound View Throgs Neck Community Mental Health Center [edit]Centers and InstitutesHP Pavilion dv7-2000 Battery Children's Evaluation and Rehabilitation Center (CERC) is the main clinical arm of the Rose F. Kennedy University Center for Excellence in Developmental Disabilities (RFK UCEDD), one of 67 UCEDDs in the United States. Composed of 10 interdisciplinary teams (Early Childhood Center, HP Pavilion dv7-2001tu BatteryInfant and Toddler Team, Infant Preschool Unit, School Age Unit, Adolescent Unit, Adult Team, Special Care Dentistry Program, Rehab Team, Children's Hearing Program,and Developmental and Family Support Unit), CERC provides care for approximately 8,000 children and adults with developmental and other disabilities each year. HP Pavilion dv7-2001tx Battery [20] Under the direction of Robert W. Marion, M.D., a medical geneticist, CERC's mission is to provide outstanding care to children with disabilities and their families, provide training to the next generation of leaders in the field of neurodevelopmental disabilities, HP Pavilion dv7-2001xx Batteryand to perform research into the causes and potential treatments of the conditions that affect our patients. The research arm of CERC is headed by Dr. John J. Foxe.[21] CERC is home to one of 36 LEND (Leadership in Neurodevelopmental Disabilities) programs in the US, HP Pavilion dv7-2002tu Batteryoffering hands-on training to professionals in developmental and behavioral pediatrics, special care and general dentistry, medical genetics and genetic counseling, physiatry, psychology, social work, nursing, and other specialties. Each year, more than 1,000 professionals receive long-term, intermediate-term, or short-term training at our centers. HP Pavilion dv7-2002tx Battery In 2007, CERC has also developed a substantial clinical research program, investigating the causes and treatments of such conditions as autism and autism spectrum disorder, sensorineural hearing loss and cerebral palsy. The Center for Ethics at Yeshiva University and the Institute for Public Health Sciences are affiliated with the medical school. HP Pavilion dv7-2002xx Battery Albert Einstein Cancer Center [22] Center for AIDS Research (CFAR) [23] Diabetes Research and Training Center (DRTC)[24] Hispanic Center of Excellence [25] HP Pavilion dv7-2003tu Battery Institute for Aging Research [26] Institute for Clinical and Translational Research [27] See all centers[28] [edit]Student lifeHP Pavilion dv7-2003tx Battery Einstein is located in Morris Park, a quiet residential neighborhood in the northeast Bronx. Within a 15-minute drive of campus are the Wildlife Conservation Park (better known as the Bronx Zoo) and the New York Botanical Garden and its Haupt ConservatoryHP Pavilion dv7-2004tx Battery. Also nearby is the fishing community of City Island, which features marinas and a broad selection of seafood restaurants.[29] There are more than 50 student clubs organized around a variety of activities, medical specialties, and a wide range of religious, political, and ethnic affiliations. Offerings include dance and movie clubs, HP Pavilion dv7-2005tx Battery an arts and literary magazine, and the Einstein Community Health Outreach (ECHO), which launched the state’s first student-coordinated free clinic.[30] Manhattan is a 30–45 minute ride by car, express bus, or mass transit from Einstein’s campus. HP Pavilion dv7-2006tx Battery [edit]The Jack and Pearl Resnick Campus The Falk center with one of the 3 Einstein Student Housing buildings in the background The Michael F. Price Center for Genetic and Translational Medicine is a $220 million research building, officially opened and dedicated on June 12, 2008. HP Pavilion dv7-2007tx Battery It is 201,000 square feet (18,700 m²) and will house 40 new laboratories. It is a state of the art research facility and contains a BSL-3 laboratory for infectious disease research. The Arthur B. HP Pavilion dv7-2008tx Battery and Diane Belfer Educational Center for Health Sciences (1972) is the school's main educational building and houses the 1st year medical students' lecture hall (Riklis Auditorium) along with instructional labs and various conference rooms. The administrative offices are also located here. The Leo Forchheimer Medical Sciences Building (1953) is the school's first building. HP Pavilion dv7-2010tx Battery It contains the Robbins auditorium (the 2nd year medical student lecture hall), Max and Sadie lounge, various biological research labs and anatomy labs, and other lecture rooms for graduate courses. In 2007, the building caught on fire twice, severely disrupting classes and research. This building is also home to the D. Samuel Gottesman LibraryHP Pavilion dv7-2011tx Battery, located on the 1st floor of the building. [20] The D. Samuel Gottesman Library [21] serves the needs of the Einstein community. (during peak exam periods the library will have extended study hours on Friday night and SaturdayHP Pavilion dv7-2012tx Battery, the weekend before exams.) The library is open Sunday through Friday; it is closed in observance of the Sabbath on Saturdays. In June 2006, the library embarked on a year-long renovation project of its main floor.[31] Ullmann Research Center for Health Sciences (1964). HP Pavilion dv7-2013tx Battery The Irwin B. and Sylvia Chanin Institute for Cancer Research (1978) is devoted exclusively to basic investigations into malignant processes. Mazer Building contains, among other things, the Lubin Student Center, which is the school's kosher dining hall. HP Pavilion dv7-2014tx Battery Gruss Magnetic Resonance Research Center [32] The Samuel H. and Rachel Golding Building (1996) is a 10-story biomedical research facility that is an addition to the original Forchheimer building. Falk Recreation Center, which houses a gymHP Pavilion dv7-2018x Battery, pool, indoor track, in addition to basketball, squash and racquetball courts. Morris Park Avenue bisects the campus, separating the majority of academic and research buildings from the residential buildings and new construction. The Eastchester Road Residence Complex, HP Pavilion dv7-2019ca Battery a 634-apartment complex comprising three 28 story apartment buildings, provides housing to all MD and PhD students (including some post-doctoral fellows) and their families. The Rhinelander Hall Residence Complex houses mostly post-docs and the occasional med student. HP Pavilion dv7-2019x Battery The Jack D. Weiler Hospital of the Albert Einstein College of Medicine. Weiler is a division of Montefiore Medical Center. The Rose F. Kennedy Center for Research in Mental Retardation and Human Development lies on the adjacent campus of the Bronx Municipal Hospital Center (Jacobi Medical Center). HP Pavilion dv7-2020x Battery The Van Etten Building (soon to be fully renovated), home to the now finished Ruth L. Gottesman Clinical Skills Center, a 22,700-square-foot (2,110 m²) space of classrooms and 23 fully equipped exam rooms for the clinical instruction of first and second year medical students.[33][34] HP Pavilion dv7-2021x Battery Beginning in 2007 with the construction of the Michael F. Price Center, EE&K Architects have been working closely with Albert Einstein College of Medicine on a comprehensive master plan of the future long-term development and renovation of The Jack and Pearl Resnick Campus.[35] HP Pavilion dv7-2022tx Battery [edit]Notable alumni Raymond Vahan Damadian (M.D., Class of 1960), Pioneer of Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI); founder, president, and chairman, FONAR Corporation; professor of medicine and radiology, HP Pavilion dv7-2040us Battery SUNY Health Science Center at Brooklyn. Howard Dean (M.D., 1978), a former Vermont governor and chairman of the Democratic National Committee, and 2004 presidential candidate. Dean met his wife, Judith Steinberg Dean, while they were both students at Einstein. HP Pavilion dv7-2043cl Battery Baruch Goldstein, perpetrator of the Cave of the Patriarchs massacre. Ken Shubin Stein, Founder & Portfolio Manager, Spencer Capital Management; Healthcare investor Sankar Ghosh, Silverstein & Hutt Family Professor and Chairman of Department of Microbiology and Immunology at Columbia University. HP Pavilion dv7-2044ca BatteryNoted luminary in study of transcription factor NF-KB. Ronald Hoffman (M.D., 1983), a champion of holistic medicine, an author and a radio talk show host.[36] Harvey Karp (M.D., Class of 1976), assistant professor of pediatrics, UCLA School of Medicine; HP Pavilion dv7-2078ca Batteryauthor of The Happiest Baby on the Block. Jonathan Zizmor (M.D., 1969), is a dermatologist and renowned personality amongst New York City subway riders. Ronald A. DePinho, a cancer biologistHP Pavilion dv7-2100 Battery