Jordan（1）

Jordan, officially the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, Al-Mamlaka al-Urduniyya al-Hashemiyya) is a kingdom on the East Bank of the River Jordan. The country borders Saudi Arabia to the east and south-east, Iraq to the north-east, Syria to the north and the West Bank and Israel to the west, sharing control of the Dead Sea(Dell D6400 battery). Jordan's only port is at its south-western tip, at the Gulf of Aqaba, which is shared with Israel, Egypt, and Saudi Arabia. Over half of Jordan is covered by the Arabian Desert. However, the western part of Jordan is arable land and forests. Jordan is part of the Fertile Crescent. The capital city is Amman(Dell HF674 battery).

Jordan was founded in 1921, and it was recognized by the League of Nations as a state under the British mandate in 1922 known as The Emirate of Transjordan. In 1946, Jordan became an independent sovereign state officially known as the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan(Dell N3010 battery).

In antiquity, the present day Jordan was in the heart of the earlier civilizations which prospered in the Fertile Crescent including the Babylonian and the Canaanites. Later, Jordan became a home for several ancient kingdoms including: the kingdom of Edom, the kingdom of Moab, the kingdom of Ammon and the prominent Nabataean kingdom of Petra(Dell Inspiron N4010 battery). However, across different eras of history, parts of the country laid under the control of some regional powers including Pharaonic Egypt during their wars with the Babylonian and the Hittites; and for discrete periods of times by Israelites who were taken under the captivity of the Babylonian, and who were later defeated by the Moabites as recorded in Mesha stele. Furthermore, and due to its strategic location in the middle of the ancient world(Dell INSPIRON 1100 battery), Jordan was also controlled by the ancient empires of Greece, the Persians, the Romans and later by the Byzantine. Yet, the Nabataean managed to create their independent kingdom which covered most parts of modern Jordan and beyond, for some centuries, before it was taken by the still expanding Roman empire(Dell Inspiron 1200 battery). However, apart from Petra, the Romans maintained the prosperity of most of the ancient cities in Jordan which enjoyed a sort of city-state autonomy under the umbrella of the alliance of the Decapolis. With the decline of the Roman Empire, Jordan came to be controlled by the Ghassanid Arab kingdom. In the seventh century, and due to its proximity to Damascus(Dell Inspiron 1420 battery), Jordan became a heartland for the Arabic Islamic Empire and therefore secured several centuries of stability and prosperity, which allowed the coining of its current Arabic Islamic identity. In the 11th century, Jordan witnessed a phase of instability, as it became a battlefield for the Crusade wars which ended with defeat by the Ayyubids(Dell Inspiron 1464 battery). Jordan suffered also from the Mongol attacks which were blocked by Mamluks. In 1516, It became part of the Ottoman Empire and it remained so until 1918, when the Army of the Great Arab Revolt took over, and secured the present day Jordan with the help and support of Jordan local tribes(Dell Inspiron 1564 battery).

As witness to Jordan's rich history, the Nabataean civilization left many magnificent archaeological sites at Petra, which is considered one of the New Seven Wonders of the World as well as been recognized by the UNESCO as a world Heritage site. Beside Petra, other civilizations also left their archaeological fingerprints on Jordan including the Hellenistic and the Roman through their ruins in Decapolis cities of Gerasa (Jerash) (Dell Inspiron 1764 battery), Gadara (Umm Qais), Philadelphia (Amman), Capitolias (Beit Ras), Raphana, Pella and Arabella (Irbid) and the Byzantine site of Um er-Rasas (a UNESCO World Heritage Site). The Arabic Islamic Empire also left its unique architectural signature which is embodied by desert palaces including Qasr Mshatta, Qasr al Hallabat and Qasr Amra which is recognized as World Heritage(Dell Inspiron 1520 battery); in addition to the castles of Ajloun and Karak which combine the Crusade, Ayyubid and Mamluk eras all together. The more recent Ottomans left some landmarks including several mosques, tombs, small railway stations and castles.

Modern Jordan is predominantly urbanized. Jordan is classified as a country of "high human development" by the 2010 Human Development Report(Dell Inspiron 1521 battery). Furthermore, The Kingdom has been classified as an emerging market with a free market economy by the CIA World Fact Book. Jordan is also considered to be an "upper middle income" economy. Free Trade Agreement (FTA) with the United States went into effect in December, 2001 phased out duties on nearly all goods and services between the two countries(Dell inspiron 1525 battery). Jordan has also enjoyed "advanced status" with the European Union since December 2010 as well as being a member of the Euro-Mediterranean free trade area. Jordan has more Free Trade Agreements than any other country in the region. It has very close relations with the United States and the United Kingdom, and became a major non-NATO ally of the United States in 1996(Dell inspiron 1526 battery). Jordan is a founding member of both the Arab League, and the Organisation of the Islamic Cooperation (OIC). Recently, Jordan has been invited to Join the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC). The Jordanian Government is one of only three members of the 22 state Arab League to have diplomatic relations with Israel, the others being the Egyptian and Palestinian governments(Dell Inspiron 1720 battery). Jordan is a member of the WTO, the AFESD, the Arab Parliament, the AIDMO, the AMF, the International Monetary Fund, the International Criminal Court, the UNHRC, the GAFTA, the ESCWA, the ENP and the United Nations.

Etymology

The kingdom is named after the River Jordan. The name "Jordan" derives from Arabic and other Semitic languages and has multiple meanings (Ancient Arabic الأردن meaning "Steep/Slope" from the root يرد/أرد Ard/Yrd, the Canaanite root Arda, Hebrew ירד Yarad, ultimately from Aramaic Yarden meaning "down-flowing" or "one who descends" in the root ירד Yrd) (Dell Inspiron 2000 battery).

Geography

Main article: Geography of Jordan

Spring in an Amman suburb

Ajloun mountains

Snow in Amman

Wadi Rum in Aqaba Governorate

Dana Biosphere Reserve

View from Mahis towards the Jordan valley

The Dead Sea is the lowest point on earth and about nine times saltier than ocean water

The Roman Oval Piazza in the ancient city of Jerash

Jordan lies between latitudes 29° and 34° N, and longitudes 35° and 40° E (a small area lies west of 35°). It consists of an arid plateau in the east, irrigated by oasis and seasonal water streams, with highland area in the west of arable land and Mediterranean evergreen forestry(Dell INSPIRON 2600 battery).

The Jordan Rift Valley of the Jordan River separates Jordan, the west bank and Israel. The highest point in the country is Jabal Umm al Dami, at 1,854 m (6,083 ft) above sea level, its top is also covered with snow, while the lowest is the Dead Sea −420 m (−1,378 ft). Jordan is part of a region considered to be "the cradle of civilization", the Levant region of the Fertile Crescent(Dell INSPIRON 3800 battery).

Major cities include the capital Amman and as-Salt in the west, Irbid, Jerash and Zarqa, in the northwest and Madaba, Karak and Aqaba in the southwest. Major towns in the eastern part of the of the country are the oasis town of Azraq and Ruwaished.

Climate

Main article: Climate of Jordan

The climate in Jordan is semi-dry in summer with average temperature in the mid 30 °C (86 °F) (mid 90°F) and relatively cold in winter averaging around 13 °C (55 °F) (Dell INSPIRON 4000 battery). The western part of the country receives greater precipitation during the winter season from November to March and snowfall in Amman (756 m (2,480 ft) ~ 1,280 m (4,199 ft) above sea-level) and Western Heights of 500 m (1,640 ft). Excluding the rift valley the rest of the country is entirely above 300 m (984 ft)(SL) (Dell Inspiron 5000 battery).

The major characteristic of the climate is humid from November to March and semi dry weather for the rest of the year. With hot, dry summers and cool winters during which practically all of the precipitation occurs, the country has a Mediterranean-style climate. In general, the farther inland from the Mediterranean a given part of the country lies, the greater are the seasonal contrasts in temperature and the less rainfall(Dell INSPIRON 500M battery).

Atmospheric pressures during the summer months are relatively uniform, whereas the winter months bring a succession of marked low pressure areas and accompanying cold fronts. These cyclonic disturbances generally move eastward from over the Mediterranean Sea several times a month and result in sporadic precipitation(Dell INSPIRON 5100 battery).

Most of the land receives less than 620 mm (24.4 in) of rain a year and may be classified as a semi dry region. Where the ground rises to form the highlands east of the Jordan Valley, precipitation increases to around 300 mm (11.8 in) in the south and 500 mm (19.7 in) or more in the north. The Jordan Valley, forms a narrow climatic zone that annually receives up to 900 mm (35.4 in) of rain in the northern reaches(Dell INSPIRON 510M battery); rain dwindles to less than 120 mm (4.7 in) at the head of the Dead Sea.

The country's long summer reaches a peak during August. January is usually the coldest month. The fairly wide ranges of temperature during a twenty-four-hour period are greatest during the summer months and have a tendency to increase with higher elevation. Daytime temperatures during the summer months frequently exceed 29 °C (84.2 °F) and average about 32 °C (89.6 °F) (Dell INSPIRON 6000 battery).

In contrast, the winter months—September to March—bring moderately cool and sometimes very cold weather, averaging about 3.2 °C (37.8 °F). Except in the rift depression, frost is fairly common during the winter, it may take the form of snow at the higher elevations of the north western highlands. Usually it snows a couple of times in the winter(Dell INSPIRON 600M battery).

For a month or so before and after the summer dry season, hot, dry air from the desert, drawn by low pressure, produces strong winds from the south or southeast that sometimes reach gale force. Known in Western Asia by various names, including the khamsin, this dry, sirocco-style wind is usually accompanied by great dust clouds(Dell Inspiron 6400 battery). Its onset is heralded by a hazy sky, a falling barometer, and a drop in relative humidity to about 10%. Within a few hours there may be a 10 °C (18.0 °F) to 15 °C (27.0 °F) rise in temperature. These windstorms ordinarily last a day or so, cause much discomfort, and destroy crops by desiccating them.

The shamal, comes from the north or northwest, generally at intervals between June and September. Steady during daytime hours but becoming a breeze at night, the shamal may blow for as long as nine days out of ten and then repeat the process(Dell INSPIRON 7000 battery). It originates as a dry continental mass of polar air that is warmed as it passes over the Eurasian landmass.

History of Jordan

Main article: History of Jordan

The ancient city of Petra, one of the New Seven Wonders of the World.

Ancient history

Further information: Ancient history

The Mesha stele as photographed circa 1891. The stele describes the wars of king Mesha of Moab against the Israelites.

Jordan's roots as a sovereign independent state go back to the ancient kingdoms of the Nabatean Petra, Edom, Ammon, and Moab which flourished in Jordan in the 2nd and 1st millennium B.C which makes its history goes back to 3000–4000 years ago(Dell INSPIRON 700M battery).

The Nabatean kingdom (Arabic: الأنباط, Al-Anbāt) was one of the most prominent states in the region. The amazing ruins of its capital, Petra, bear witness to their unique architecture, civilization, and prosperity. In 2007 Petra was selected as one of the new seven wonders of the world(Dell Inspiron 710m battery).

The Nabatean were an ancient Arabic Semitic people who inhabited most of the populated region of Jordan. During its peak, the Nabataean kingdom controlled regional and international trade routes of the ancient world by dominating a large area southwest of the fertile crescent, which included the whole of modern Jordan in addition to the southern part of Syria in the north and the northern part of Arabian Peninsula in the south(Dell INSPIRON 8200 battery). As a result, Nabatean enjoyed independence, prosperity, and wealth for hundreds of years until it was occupied by the Roman Empire, which was still expanding in 100 CE. The Nabataeans developed the Arabic Script, with their language as an intermediary between Aramaean and the ancient Classical Arabic, which evolved into Modern Arabic(Dell INSPIRON 8600 battery).

The Kingdom of Edom was another strong ancient kingdom, based in the south of Jordan, it controlled most of the populated region of Jordan. The writings of Mesha Stele recorded the glory of the King of Edom and the victories of the kingdom in its wars with the Israelites and other nations(Dell INSPIRON 9100 battery).

In addition to Nabatean and Edom, the Ammon and Moab kingdoms were also based in Jordan. All are mentioned in several ancient maps, Near Eastern documents, ancient Greco-Roman artifacts, and Christian and Jewish religious scriptures.

Classic antiquity

During the Greco-Roman period of influence, a number of semi-independent city-states also developed in the region of Jordan under the umbrella of the Decapolis including: Gerasa (Jerash), Philadelphia (Amman), Raphana (Abila), Dion (Capitolias) (Dell INSPIRON 9200 battery), Gadara (Umm Qays), and Pella (Irbid). Parts of Jordan were later incorporated into the Hasmonean kingdom, with pastoralist Nabateans slowly establishing their own realm in the southern parts of the Transjordan. Following the establishment of Roman Empire at Syria and Judaea, the country was incorporated into the client Judaea Kingdom of Herod(Dell INSPIRON 9300 battery), and later the Iudaea Province. With the suppression of Jewish Revolts, the eastern bank of Jordan was incorporated into the Syria Palaestina province, while the eastern deserts fell under Parthian and later Persian Sassanid control.

Muslim empires

In the 7th century, and for several centuries, the region of today's Jordan became one of the heartlands of the Arabic Islamic Empire across its different Caliphates' stages, including the Rashidun Empire(Dell Inspiron 9400 battery), Umayyad Empire and Abbasid Empire. During the Islamic era, Jordan coined its current Arabic Islamic cultural identity. Several resources pointed that the Abbasid movement, was started in region of Jordan before it took over the Umayyad empire. After the decline of the Abbasid, It was ruled by several conflicting powers including the Mongols, the Crusaders, the Ayyubids and the Mamluks until it became part of the Ottoman Empire in 1516(Dell Inspiron E1505 battery).

Modern history

Further information: Modern history

The Great Arab Revolt

Arab Soldiers in the Arab Army during the Arab Revolt of 1916–1918

Arab Revolt Tribal Cavalry – Tribes of Jordan and Arabia, c. 1918

Adyghe (Circassian) horsemanship in Transjordan, April 1921

Main article: Arab Revolt

During World War I, the Jordanian tribes fought, along with other tribes of Hijaz and Levant regions, as part of the Arab Army of the Great Arab Revolt. The revolt was launched by Hashemites and led by Sherif Hussein of Mecca against the Ottoman Empire(Dell Inspiron E1705 battery). It was supported by the Allies of World War I. The chronicle of the revolt was written by T. E. Lawrence who, as a young British Army officer, played a liaison role during the revolt. He published the chronicle in London, 1922 under the title "Seven Pillars of Wisdom", which was the base for the iconic movie "Lawrence of Arabia"(Dell Inspiron Mini 9 battery).

The Great Arab Revolt was successful in liberating most of the territories of Hijaz and the Levant, including the region of east of Jordan. However, it failed to gain international recognition of the region as an independent state, due mainly to the secret Sykes–Picot Agreement of 1916 and the Balfour Declaration of 1917(Dell Latitude D400 battery). This was seen by the Hashemites and the Arabs as betrayal of the previous agreements with the British, including the McMahon–Hussein Correspondence in 1915, in which the British stated their willingness to recognize the independence of the Arab state in Hijaz and the Levant. However, a compromise was eventually reached; and the Emirate of Transjordan was created under the Hashemites reign(Dell STUDIO 1450 battery).

British mandate of Transjordan

In September 1922 the Council of the League of Nations recognized Transjordan as a state under the British Mandate and Transjordan memorandum excluded the territories east of the River Jordan from all of the provisions of the mandate dealing with Jewish settlement. The country remained under British supervision until 1946(Dell Vostro 1400 battery).

The Hashemite leadership met multiple difficulties upon assuming power in the region. The most serious threats to emir Abdullah's position in Transjordan were repeated Wahhabi incursions from Najd into southern parts of his territory. The emir was powerless to repel those raids by himself, thus the British maintained a military base, with a small air force, at Marka, close to Amman(Dell Vostro 1500 battery). The British military force was the primary obstacle against the Ikhwan, and was also used to help emir Abdullah with the suppression of local rebellions at Kura and later by Sultan Adwan, in 1921 and 1923 respectively.

Arar (1897-1949) Poet of Jordan

Independence

On May 25, 1946 the United Nations approved the end of the British Mandate and recognized Jordan as an independent sovereign kingdom. The Parliament of Jordan proclaimed King Abdullah as the first King(Dell XPS GEN 2 battery). Abdullah I continued to rule until he was assassinated in 1951 as he was leaving the al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem.

Post-independence history

Amman The Capital of Jordan

Jordan became a founding member of the Arab League in 1945 and, as an independent country, it joined the United Nations in 1955. In 1957 it terminated the Anglo-Jordan treaty, one year after the king sacked the British personnel serving in the Jordanian Army. This act of Arabization ensured the complete sovereignty of Jordan as a fully independent nation(Dell XPS M1210 battery).

1967 War with Israel

Field marshal Habis Al-Majali and former prime minister Wasfi Al-Tal are two of Jordan's most famous national icons and are symbols of Jordanian Nationalism.

Main article: 1967 Arab-Israeli War

Jordan signed a military pact with Egypt in May 1967, and following an Israeli air attack on Egypt in June 1967, Egypt, Jordan, Syria and Iraq continued the Six Day War against Israel. During the war, Israel captured the West Bank and East Jerusalem(Dell XPS M1330 battery).

The period following the 1967 war saw an upsurge in the activity and numbers of Arab Palestinian paramilitary elements (fedayeen) within the state of Jordan. These distinct, armed militias were becoming a "state within a state", threatening Jordan's rule of law. King Hussein's armed forces targeted the fedayeen, and open fighting erupted in June 1970(Dell XPS 1340 battery). The battle in which Palestinian fighters from various Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) groups were expelled from Jordan is commonly known as Black September.

The heaviest fighting occurred in northern Jordan and Amman. In the ensuing heavy fighting, a Syrian tank force invaded northern Jordan to back the fedayeen fighters, but subsequently retreated. King Hussein urgently asked the United States and Great Britain to intervene against Syria. Consequently(Dell XPS M1530 battery), Israel performed mock air strikes on the Syrian column at the Americans' request. Soon after, Syrian President Nureddin al-Atassi, ordered a hasty retreat from Jordanian soil. By September 22, Arab foreign ministers meeting in Cairo arranged a cease-fire beginning the following day. However, sporadic violence continued until Jordanian forces(Dell XPS M170 battery), led by Habis Al-Majali, with the help of Iraqi forces, won a decisive victory over the fedayeen on July 1971, expelling them, and ultimately the PLO's Yasser Arafat, from Jordan.

1973 Arab-Israeli war

Main article: 1973 Arab-Israeli War

In 1973, allied Arab League forces attacked Israel in the Yom Kippur War, and fighting occurred along the 1967 Jordan River cease-fire line. Jordan sent a brigade to Syria to attack Israeli units on Syrian territory but did not engage Israeli forces from Jordanian territory(Dell XPS M1710 battery).

At the Rabat summit conference in 1974, Jordan was now in a more secure position to agree, along with the rest of the Arab League, that the PLO was the "sole legitimate representative of the [Arab] Palestinian people", thereby relinquishing to that organization its role as representative of the West Bank(Dell XPS M1730 battery).

The Amman Agreement of February 11, 1985, declared that the PLO and Jordan would pursue a proposed confederation between the state of Jordan and a Palestinian state. In 1988, King Hussein dissolved the Jordanian parliament and renounced Jordanian claims to the West Bank. The PLO assumed responsibility as the Provisional Government of Palestine and an independent state was declared(Dell XPS M2010 battery).

Peace treaty with Israel

A handshake between Hussein I of Jordan and Yitzhak Rabin, accompanied by Bill Clinton, after signing the Israel-Jordan Treaty of Peace, October 26, 1994

Main article: Israel-Jordan peace treaty

In 1991, Jordan agreed, along with Syria, Lebanon, and the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), to participate in direct peace negotiations with Israel at the Madrid Conference, sponsored by the US and the Soviet Union(Dell Latitude E5400 battery). It negotiated an end to hostilities with Israel and signed a declaration to that effect on 25 July 1994 (see Washington Declaration). As a result, an Israeli-Jordanian peace treaty was concluded on 26 October 1994. King Hussein was later honored when his picture appeared on an Israeli postage stamp in recognition of the good relations he established with his neighbor. Since the signing of the peace treaty with Israel(Dell Latitude E5500 battery), the United States not only contributes hundreds of millions of dollars in an annual foreign aid stipend to Jordan, but also has allowed it to establish a free trade zone in which to manufacture goods that will enter the US without paying the usual import taxes as long as a percentage of the material used in them is purchased in Israel(Dell Latitude E6400 battery).

King Hussein was treated for cancer in the US for a long period of time. On his return to Jordan, King Hussein changed the crown prince from his brother Prince Hasan to his eldest son Abdullah. He also released some political prisoners in Jordan. King Hussein died some time afterward in 1999. His son, King Abdullah II succeeded him(Dell Latitude E6500 battery).

Following the outbreak of fighting between Israel and Palestinians in the Second Intifada in September 2000, the Jordanian government offered its offices to both parties. Jordan has since sought to remain at peace with all of its neighbors. Particularly good relations have been maintained between the Jordanian royal family and Israel(Dell Inspiron Mini 12 battery), with the Jordanian government frequently dispersing rallies and jailing demonstrators protesting against Israeli actions. The government also censors anti-Israeli views from the Jordanian news media.

The last major strain in Jordan's relations with Israel occurred in September 1997, when two Israeli agents entered Jordan using Canadian passports and poisoned Khaled Meshal, a senior leader of the Palestinian group Hamas(Dell XPS M140 battery). Under threat of cutting off diplomatic relations, King Hussein forced Israel to provide an antidote to the poison and to release dozens of Jordanians and Palestinians from its prisons, including the spiritual leader of Hamas, Sheikh Ahmed Yassin. Sheikh Yassin was later assassinated by Israel in a targeted bombing in early 2004 in the Gaza Strip(Dell XPS 13 battery).

On 9 November 2005 Jordan experienced three simultaneous terrorist bombings at hotels in Amman. At least 57 people died and 115 were wounded. "Al-Qaeda in Iraq", a group led by terrorist Abu Musab al-Zarqawi, claimed responsibility.

Recently, Jordan has revoked the citizenship of thousands of Palestinians in an attempt to thwart any attempt by Israel of permanently re-settling West Bank Palestinians in Jordan(Dell XPS 16 battery). West Bank Palestinians with family in Jordan or with previous Jordanian citizenship would be issued yellow cards which guaranteed them all the rights of Jordanian citizenship. Palestinians working for the Palestinian Authority or the PLO were among those who have had their Jordanian passports taken from them, in addition to anyone who did not serve in the Jordanian army(Dell XPS 1640 battery). Palestinians living in Jordan with family in the West Bank would also be issued yellow cards. All other Palestinians wishing such Jordanian papers would be issued a green card which would facilitate travel into Jordan and give them temporary Jordanian passports in order to make travel easier. In addition, no Palestinians from the Gaza Strip are given any such privileges because Jordanian authority never extended into the Gaza Strip(Dell XPS 1645 battery).

Government

Main article: Government of Jordan

The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan is a constitutional monarchy with an appointed government. The reigning monarch is the chief executive and the commander-in-chief of the armed forces. The king exercises his executive authority through the prime ministers and the Council of Ministers, or cabinet(Dell XPS 1647 battery). The cabinet, meanwhile, is responsible before the democratically elected House of Deputies which, along with the House of Notables (Senate), constitutes the legislative branch of the government. The judicial branch is an independent branch of the government.

Kings

See also: List of Kings of Jordan and Line of succession to the Jordanian throne

King Abdullah II, Jordanian Head of State.

King Abdullah I ruled Jordan after independence from Britain. After the assassination of King Abdullah I in 1951, his son King Talal ruled briefly(Dell Latitude 131L battery). King Talal's major accomplishment was the Jordanian constitution. King Talal was removed from the throne in 1952 due to mental illness. At that time his son, Hussein, was too young to rule, and hence a committee ruled over Jordan.

After Hussein reached 18, he ruled Jordan as king from 1953 to 1999, surviving a number of challenges to his rule, drawing on the loyalty of his military, and serving as a symbol of unity and stability in Jordan(Dell Latitude C400 battery). King Hussein ended martial law in 1991 and legalized political parties in 1992. In 1989 and 1993, Jordan held free and fair parliamentary elections. Controversial changes in the election law led Islamist parties to boycott the 1997 elections.

King Abdullah II succeeded his father Hussein following the latter's death in February 1999. Abdullah moved quickly to reaffirm Jordan's peace treaty with Israel and its relations with the United States. Abdullah, during the first year in power, refocused the government's agenda on economic reform(Dell Latitude C500 battery).

Queen Rania of Jordan

Jordan's continuing structural economic difficulties, burgeoning population, and more open political environment led to the emergence of a variety of political parties. Moving toward greater independence, Jordan's parliament has investigated corruption charges against several regime figures and has become the major forum in which differing political views, including those of political Islamists, are expressed(Dell Latitude C510 battery). While the King remains the ultimate authority in Jordan, the parliament plays an important role.

Parliament

Main article: Parliament of Jordan

The 1952 Constitution provided for the establishment of the bicameral National Assembly of Jordan (‘Majlis al-Umma’). The Parliament consists of two Chambers: The Chamber of Deputies (‘Majlis al-Nuwaab’) and the Senate (‘Majlis al-Aayan’; literally, ‘Assembly of Notables’). The Senate has 60 Senators, all of whom are directly appointed by the King, (Dell Latitude C540 battery) while the Chamber of Deputies/House of Representatives has 120 elected members representing 12 constituencies. Of the 120 members of the Lower Chamber, 12 seats are reserved for women, 9 seats are reserved for Christian candidates, 9 seats are reserved for Bedouin candidates, and 3 seats are reserved for Jordanians of Chechen or Circassian descent(Dell Latitude C600 battery). The Constitution ensures that the Senate cannot be more than half the size of the Chamber of Deputies.

The constitution does not provide a strong system of checks and balances within which the Jordanian Parliament can assert its role in relationship to the monarch. During the suspension of Parliament between 2001 and 2003, the scope of King Abdullah II's power was demonstrated with the passing of 110 temporary laws. Two of such laws dealt with election law and were seen to reduce the power of Parliament(Dell Latitude C610 battery).

Senators have terms of four years and are appointed by the King and can be reappointed. Prospective Senators must be at least forty years old and have held senior positions in either the government or military. Appointed Senators have included former Prime Ministers and Members of the Chamber of Deputies(Dell Latitude C640 battery). Deputies are elected to also serve a four year term. Candidates must be older than thirty-five, cannot have blood ties to the King, and must not have any financial interests in government contracts.

Constitution

Jordan is a constitutional monarchy based on the constitution promulgated on 8 January 1952. Executive authority is vested in the king and his council of ministers. The king signs and executes all laws. His veto power may be overridden by a two-thirds vote of both houses of the National Assembly(Dell Latitude C800 battery). He appoints and may dismiss all judges by decree, approves amendments to the constitution, declares war, and commands the armed forces. Cabinet decisions, court judgments, and the national currency are issued in his name. The council of ministers, led by a prime minister, is appointed by the king, who may dismiss other cabinet members at the prime minister's request(Dell Latitude C810 battery). The cabinet is accountable to the Chamber of Deputies on matters of general policy and can be forced to resign by a 50% or more of vote of "no confidence" by that body.

The constitution provides for three categories of courts: civil, religious, and special. Administratively, Jordan is divided into twelve governorates, each headed by a governor appointed by the king. They are the sole authorities for all government departments and development projects in their respective areas(Dell Latitude C840 battery).

Legal system and legislation

Jordan's legal system is based on French code law system via the Egyptian civil laws while Islamic law is limited to civic status legislation for Muslims. Religious minority civic status is regulated by respective religious courts. Judicial review of legislative acts occurs in a special High Tribunal. It has not accepted International Court of Justice jurisdiction(Dell Latitude D410 battery).

Jordan has multi-party politics. There are over 30 political parties in the Jordan from a wide range of positions ranging from extreme left (Jordanian Communist Party) to extreme right (Islamic Action Front).

Article 97 of Jordan's constitution guarantees the independence of the judicial branch, clearly stating that judges are 'subject to no authority but that of the law.' While the king must approve the appointment and dismissal of judges, in practice these are supervised by the Higher Judicial Council(Dell Latitude D420 battery).

The Jordanian legal system draws upon civil traditions as well as Islamic law and custom. Article 99 of the Constitution divides the courts into three categories: civil, religious and special. The civil courts deal with civil and criminal matters in accordance with the law, and they have jurisdiction over all persons in all matters, civil and criminal(Dell Latitude D430 battery), including cases brought against the government. The civil courts include Magistrate Courts, Courts of First Instance, Courts of Appeal, High Administrative Courts and the Supreme Court.

The religious courts include shari’a (Islamic law) courts and the tribunals of other religious communities, namely those of the Christian minority. Religious courts have primary and appellate courts and deal only with matters involving personal law such as marriage, divorce, inheritance and child custody(Dell Latitude D500 battery). Shari’a courts also have jurisdiction over matters pertaining to the Islamic waqfs. In cases involving parties of different religions, regular courts have jurisdiction.

Despite being traditionally dominated by men the number of women involved as lawyers in the Jordan legal system has been increasing. As of mid-2006 Jordan had 1,284 female lawyers, out of a total number of 6,915, and 35 female judges from a total of 630(Dell Latitude D505 battery). In Jordan, between 15 and 20 women are murdered annually in the name of "honour" and at least eight such killings have been reported in 2008, according to Jordanian authorities. In 2007 17 such murders were recorded. These killings, despite popular belief, are neither legal nor limited to any one community; nonetheless it is difficult to seek justice for them(Dell Latitude D510 battery).

Police

Main article: Law enforcement in Jordan

A female police officer in Amman

Jordan ranked 24th in the world, 4th in the Middle East, in terms of police services' reliability in the Global Competitiveness Report. Jordan also ranked 13th in the world and 3rd in the Middle East in terms of prevention of organized crime, making it one of the safest countries in the world(Dell Latitude D520 battery).

Foreign relations

Main article: Foreign relations of Jordan

King Abdullah II on a visit to The Pentagon.

Jordan has consistently followed a pro-Western foreign policy and traditionally has had close relations with the United States and the United Kingdom. These relations were damaged by Jordan's neutrality and maintaining relations with Iraq during the first Gulf War even though it was negotiating a peace settlement to end the conflict(Dell Latitude D600 battery). Jordan has a reputation for usually following a pragmatic and non-confrontational foreign policy, leading to good relations with its neighbours.

Jordan has always been a mediator during times of high tension. During the 1970s, King Hussein negotiated with Iran to halt the military buildup to annex the small Persian Gulf nation of Bahrain(Dell Latitude D610 battery). In the 1990s, King Hussein also tried to mediate the conflict between the United States and Iraq and tried to bring an end to hostilities while still condemning the Iraqi annexation of Kuwait. Jordan has historically been at the forefront of negotiating peace between the Israelis and the Palestinians. King Abdullah II is the mediator between Israel and the Arab League's negotiations for peace and normalization of bilateral ties(Dell Latitude D620 battery).

Following the Gulf War, Jordan largely restored its relations with Western countries through its participation in the Southwest Asia peace process and enforcement of UN sanctions against Iraq. Relations between Jordan and the Persian Gulf countries improved substantially after King Hussein's death. Following the fall of the Iraqi regime(Dell Latitude D630 battery), Jordan has played a pivotal role in supporting the restoration of stability and security to Iraq. The Government of Jordan signed a memorandum of understanding with the Coalition Provisional Authority in Iraq to facilitate the training of up to 30,000 Iraqi police cadets at a Jordanian facility.

Jordan signed a non-belligerency agreement with Israel (the Washington Declaration) in Washington, D.C., on 25 July 1994(Dell Latitude D800 battery). King Hussein and Yitzhak Rabin negotiated this treaty. Jordan and Israel signed a historic peace treaty on 26 October 1994, witnessed by President Bill Clinton, accompanied by US Secretary, Warren Christopher. The US has participated with Jordan and Israel in trilateral development discussions in which key issues have been water-sharing and security(Dell Latitude D810 battery); cooperation on Jordan Rift Valley development; infrastructure projects; and trade, finance, and banking issues.

Former Russian president Vladimir Putin visiting the Baptism Site Bethany Beyond the Jordan in the Jordan Valley in 2007

Jordan and Israel had generally close relations even before the signing of the 1994 Peace Treaty. On more than one occasion, Jordan warned Israel of an impending attack by Syria and Egypt. Also, during the Black September conflict in Jordan(Dell Latitude D820 battery), Israel warned Syria that any Syrian intervention on the side of the PLO against the Jordanian monarchy would result in an Israeli attack. Israel and Jordan along with Lebanon were already negotiating a peace treaty as early as the 1950s but a string of assassinations including Jordanian and Lebanese ambassadors and the King of Jordan himself, stopped such an attempt at peace(Dell Latitude D830 battery). However, this friendship has been damaged several times due to the worsening situation in the Palestinian territories and the slow peace process with the Palestinians. In Israel in 2009, several Likud lawmakers proposed a bill that called for a Palestinian state on both sides of the Jordan River(Dell Latitude 2100 battery), presuming that Jordan should be the alternative homeland for the Palestinians. Later, following similar remarks by the Israeli Speaker of the Knesset, twenty Jordanian lawmakers proposed a bill in the Jordanian Parliament in which the peace treaty between Israel and Jordan would be frozen. The Israeli Foreign Ministry disavowed the original proposal(Dell Latitude 2110 battery).

Jordan's relations with the United States have traditionally been close. However, the relationship between the two countries reached new heights during the reign of King Abdullah II. The Jordanian General Intelligence Department is reportedly the CIA's closest partner after Britain's MI6. Also, the release classified US cables on Wikileaks proved the depth of US-Jordan relations(Dell Latitude E4300 battery). Over 4,000 military cables were sent from Amman, the fifth most popular origin of US military cables worldwide, higher than from London or Tel Aviv. Regionally, only Ankara and Baghdad surpassed Amman. Jordan provides extensive strategic and logistic support to US military forces in Iraq and Afghanistan(Dell Vostro 1310 battery). However, the leaked military cables show that America had kept Jordan's involvement in the War on Terror quiet whether it be its rendition program or Jordan's leading of counterterrorism operations in Afghanistan and Iraq.

Jordan also participates in the multilateral peace talks. Jordan belongs to the UN and several of its specialized and related agencies, including the World Trade Organization (WTO), the International Meteorological Organization (IMO) (Dell Vostro 1320 battery), Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), and the World Health Organization (WHO). Jordan also is a member of the World Bank, International Monetary Fund (IMF), Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), Nonaligned Movement (NAM), and Arab League(Dell Vostro 1510 battery).

Military

Main article: Jordanian Armed Forces

Jordanian troops in a military parade in Amman

Six USAF F-16 fighters in Muwaffaq Salti Air Base in Azraq. JAF F-16's can be seen to the right.

Jordanian Special Forces

Jordan has a strong defensive army with strong support and aid from the United States, the United Kingdom and France. This is due to its critical position between Israel and the West Bank, Syria, Iraq, and Saudi Arabia with very close proximity to Lebanon and Egypt(Dell Vostro 1520 battery). The development of the special forces has been particularly significant, enhancing the capability of the forces to react rapidly to threats to state security, as well as training special forces from the region and beyond.

Main article: Royal Jordanian Land Force

The Royal Special Forces is a unit of the armed forces of Jordan. The Commander was Brigadier-General His Royal Highness Prince Abdullah (now King Abdullah II of Jordan), 1993–1996. In 2007, these forces received training from Blackwater Worldwide(Dell Vostro 2510 battery).

The Royal Naval Force is the Naval entity of the Jordanian Armed Forces.

The Royal Jordanian Air Force (RJAF) (Arabic: سلاح الجو الملكي الأردني, transliterated: Silah al-Jaw Almalaki al-Urduni) is the aviation branch of the Jordanian Armed Forces and includes the Royal Jordanian Air Defence.

Peacekeeping abroad

There are about 50,000 Jordanian troops working with the United Nations in peacekeeping missions across the world. These soldiers provide everything from military defense, training of native police(Dell Vostro 1014 battery), medical help, and charity. Jordan ranks third internationally in taking part in UN peacekeeping missions.

Jordan has dispatched several field hospitals to conflict zones and areas affected by natural disasters across the world such as Iraq, the West Bank, Lebanon, Afghanistan, Haiti, Indonesia, Congo, Liberia, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Sierra Leone and Pakistan. The Kingdom's field hospitals extended aid to more than one million people in Iraq(Dell Inspiron 1410 battery), some one million in the West Bank and 55,000 in Lebanon. According to the military, there are Jordanian peacekeeping forces in Asia, Africa, Europe and Latin America. Jordanian Armed Forces field hospital in Afghanistan has since 2002 provided assistance to some 750,000 persons and has significantly reduced the suffering of people residing in areas where the hospital operates.In some missions(Dell Vostro 1014N battery), the number of Jordanian troops was the second largest, the sources said. Jordan also provides extensive training of security forces in Iraq, the Palestinian territories, and the GCC.

Politics

Main article: Politics of Jordan

Jordan's most executive power is the King and it is a constitutional monarchy with an appointed government. The King traditionally has held substantial power, however the democratically elected Parliament holds significant influence and power in national governance(Dell Vostro 1015 battery).

Political parties

The reforms of 1989 legalized political parties and opposition movements. The result is over 30 political parties, but the only political party that plays a role in the legislature is the Islamic Action Front (IAF). Political parties can be seen to represent four sections: Islamists, leftists, Arab nationalists and liberals(Dell Vostro 1015N battery). Some other political parties in Jordan including the Jordanian Arab Democratic Party, Jordanian Socialist Party, and Muslim Centre Party, but these have little impact on the political process because of lack of organization and clear platforms on key domestic issues as well as differences and factions within these political parties.

Administrative Divisions

Jordan is divided into 12 provinces named Governorates, which are subdivided into 54 departments(Dell Inspiron 1088 battery).

Human rights

Main article: Human rights in Jordan

The 2010 Arab Democracy Index from the Arab Reform Initiative ranked Jordan first in the state of democratic reforms out of fifteen Arab countries.

Jordan ranked 141 out of 196 countries worldwide, earning "Not Free" status in Freedom House's 2011 Freedom of the Press 2011 report. Jordan had the 5th freest press of 19 countries in the Middle East and North Africa region(Dell Vostro A840 battery).

Civil liberties and political rights scored 5 and 6 respectively in Freedom House's Freedom in the World 2011 report, where 1 is most free and 7 is least free. This earned Jordan "Not Free" status. Jordan ranked ahead of 6, behind 4, and the same as 8 countries in the Middle East and North Africa region(Dell Vostro A860 battery).

In the 2010 Press Freedom Index maintained by Reporters Without Borders, Jordan ranked 120th out of 178 countries listed, 5th out of the 20 countries in the Middle East and North Africa region. Jordan's score was 37 on a scale from 0 (most free) to 105 (least free) (SONY PCG-5G2L battery).

Jordan ranked 6th among the 19 countries in the Middle East and North Africa region, and 50th out of 178 countries worldwide in the 2010 Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI) issued by Transparency International. Jordan's 2010 CPI score was 4.7 on a scale from 0 (highly corrupt) to 10 (very clean). Jordan ratified the United Nations Convention against Corruption (UNCAC) in February 2005 and has been a regional leader in spearheading efforts to promote the UNCAC and its implementation(SONY PCG-5G3L battery).

Areas where the government of Jordan was praised in its human rights efforts were in its protection of minority groups and freedom of religion. Christians are well integrated in Jordanian society and they are members of the country's political and economic elite. There are usually two cabinet posts held by Christians(SONY PCG-F305 battery). A survey by a Western embassy in Amman found that nearly half of Jordan's leading business families are Christian despite being a minority group. Christians have established good relations with the royal family and many hold senior positions in the military. Jordanian Christians are equally represented in the Parliament(SONY PCG-5J1L battery).