Elizabeth II and Isabella I of Castile

Queen Elizabeth II (Elizabeth Alexandra Mary; born 21 April 1926[note 1]) is the constitutional monarch of 16 sovereign states known as the Commonwealth realms, and head of the 54-member Commonwealth of Nations. She is also head of state of the Crown Dependencies and British Overseas Territories. HP Pavilion dv6-3000 Battery On her accession in 1952, she became Head of the Commonwealth and queen regnant of seven independent Commonwealth countries: the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Pakistan, and Ceylon. Between 1956 and 1992, the number of her realms varied as territories gained independence and some realms became republics. HP Pavilion dv6-3005sa BatteryToday, in addition to the first four aforementioned countries, Elizabeth is Queen of Jamaica, Barbados, the Bahamas, Grenada, Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, Tuvalu, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Belize, Antigua and Barbuda, and Saint Kitts and Nevis. Her reign of 60 years is the second longest for a British monarch; HP Pavilion dv6-3005TX Battery only Queen Victoria has reigned longer at 63 years. Elizabeth was born in London, and educated privately at home. Her father acceded to the throne as George VI in 1936 on the abdication of his brother Edward VIII. She began to undertake public duties during the Second World War, HP Pavilion dv6-3006TX Battery in which she served in the Auxiliary Territorial Service. In 1947, she married Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, with whom she has four children: Charles, Anne, Andrew, and Edward. Her coronation service took place in 1953, and was the first to be televised. HP Pavilion dv6-3010sa Battery Her many historic visits and meetings include a state visit to the Republic of Ireland and reciprocal visits to and from the Pope. The Queen has seen major constitutional changes in her realms, such as devolution in the United Kingdom and the patriation of the Canadian constitution. HP Pavilion dv6-3011TX BatteryTimes of personal significance have included the births and marriages of her children, the births of her grandchildren, the investiture of the Prince of Wales and the celebration of milestones such as her Silver, Golden and Diamond Jubilees in 1977, 2002 and 2012. Major events in the Queen's reign have included the Troubles in Northern Ireland and the Falklands War. HP Pavilion dv6-3015sa Battery There have been times of personal grief which include the death of her father at 56, the assassination of Prince Philip's uncle Lord Mountbatten, the breakdown of her children's marriages in 1992 (a year that she deemed annus horribilis), the death in 1997 of her daughter-in-law Diana, Princess of Wales, and the deaths of her mother and sister in 2002. HP Pavilion dv6-3020sa Battery The Queen has at times faced severe criticism of the royal family from the press, and republican sentiments, both in the United Kingdom and other Commonwealth countries, but her personal popularity remains high. Early lifeHP Pavilion dv6-3025sa Battery Elizabeth was the first child of Prince Albert, Duke of York (later King George VI), and his wife, Elizabeth. Her father was the second son of King George V and Queen Mary, and her mother was the youngest daughter of Scottish aristocrat Claude Bowes-Lyon, 14th Earl of Strathmore and Kinghorne. HP Pavilion dv6-3026tx Battery She was born by Caesarean section at 2.40 am (GMT) on 21 April 1926 at her maternal grandfather's London house: 17 Bruton Street, Mayfair.[1] The Anglican Archbishop of York, Cosmo Gordon Lang, baptised her in the private chapel of Buckingham Palace on 29 May.[2][note 2] She was named Elizabeth after her motherHP Pavilion dv6-3030sa Battery, Alexandra after George V's mother, who had died six months earlier, and Mary after her paternal grandmother.[3] Her close family called her "Lilibet".[4] George V cherished his granddaughter, and during his serious illness in 1929 her regular visits were credited in the popular press and by later biographers with raising his spirits and aiding his recovery.[5] HP Pavilion dv6-3030TX Battery Elizabeth's only sibling was Princess Margaret, born in 1930. The two princesses were educated at home under the supervision of their mother and their governess, Marion Crawford, who was casually known as "Crawfie".[6] Lessons concentrated on history, language, HP Pavilion dv6-3031sa Battery literature and music.[7] To the dismay of the royal family,[8] in 1950 Crawford published a biography of Elizabeth and Margaret's childhood years entitled The Little Princesses. The book describes Elizabeth's love of horses and dogs, her orderliness, and her attitude of responsibility.[9] Others echoed such observations: Winston Churchill described Elizabeth when she was two as "a character. She has an air of authority and reflectiveness astonishing in an infant." HP Pavilion dv6-3032sa Battery [10] Her cousin Margaret Rhodes described her as "a jolly little girl, but fundamentally sensible and well-behaved".[11] Heiress presumptive Painting by Philip de László As a granddaughter of the monarch in the male line, Elizabeth's full style at birth was Her Royal Highness Princess Elizabeth of York. HP Pavilion dv6-3032TX BatteryShe was third in the line of succession to the throne, behind her uncle, Edward, Prince of Wales, and her father. Although her birth generated public interest, she was not expected to become queen, as the Prince of Wales was still young and many assumed he would marry and have children of his own. HP Pavilion dv6-3033sa Battery [12] In 1936, when her grandfather, George V, died and her uncle Edward succeeded, she became second in line to the throne after her father. Later that year, Edward abdicated after his proposed marriage to divorced socialite Wallis Simpson provoked a constitutional crisis.[13] Elizabeth's father became king, HP Pavilion dv6-3035sa Battery and she became heiress presumptive, with the style Her Royal Highness The Princess Elizabeth.[14] If her parents had had a son, he would have been heir apparent and above her in the line of succession.[15] Elizabeth received private tuition in constitutional history from Henry Marten, Vice-Provost of Eton CollegeHP Pavilion dv6-3040sa Battery,[16] and learned French from a succession of native-speaking governesses.[17] A Girl Guides company, the 1st Buckingham Palace Company, was formed specifically so she could socialise with girls her own age.[18] Later she was enrolled as a Sea Ranger.[17] In 1939, HP Pavilion dv6-3042TX Battery Elizabeth's parents toured Canada and visited the United States. As in 1927, when her parents had toured Australia and New Zealand, Elizabeth remained in Britain as her father thought her too young to undertake public tours.[19] Elizabeth "looked tearful" as her parents departed.[20] They corresponded regularly,[20] and on 18 May, she and her parents made the first royal transatlantic telephone call.[19] HP Pavilion dv6-3044sa Battery Second World War From September 1939, with the outbreak of the Second World War, Elizabeth and Margaret stayed at Balmoral Castle, Scotland, until Christmas 1939, when they moved to Sandringham House, Norfolk.[21] From February to May 1940, they lived at Royal Lodge, Windsor, until moving to Windsor Castle, HP Pavilion dv6-3045sa Battery where they stayed for most of the next five years.[22] The suggestion by senior politician Lord Hailsham that the two princesses should be evacuated to Canada was rejected by Elizabeth's mother; she declared, "The children won't go without me. I won't leave without the King. And the King will never leave." HP Pavilion dv6-3046sa Battery [23] At Windsor, the princesses staged pantomimes at Christmas in aid of the Queen's Wool Fund, which bought yarn to knit into military garments.[24] In 1940, the 14-year-old Elizabeth made her first radio broadcast during the BBC's Children's Hour, addressing other children who had been evacuated from the cities.[25] She stated: HP Pavilion dv6-3047sa Battery We are trying to do all we can to help our gallant sailors, soldiers and airmen, and we are trying, too, to bear our share of the danger and sadness of war. We know, every one of us, that in the end all will be well.[25] In 1943, at the age of 16, HP Pavilion dv6-3048sa Battery Elizabeth undertook her first solo public appearance on a visit to the Grenadier Guards, of which she had been appointed Colonel-in-Chief the previous year.[26] As she approached her 18th birthday, the law was changed so that she could act as one of five Counsellors of State in the event of her father's incapacity or absence abroad, HP Pavilion dv6-3048tx Batterysuch as his visit to Italy in July 1944.[27] In February 1945, she joined the Women's Auxiliary Territorial Service, as an honorary Second Subaltern with the service number of 230873.[28] She trained as a driver and mechanic,[29] and was promoted to honorary Junior Commander five months later.[30] HP Pavilion dv6-3050eo Battery The Royal Family of the United Kingdom and the other Commonwealth realms During the war, HP Pavilion dv6-3050sa Battery plans were drawn up to quell Welsh nationalism by affiliating Elizabeth more closely with Wales.[31] Welsh politicians proposed that Elizabeth be made Princess of Wales on her 18th birthday. The idea was supported by Home Secretary Herbert Morrison, but rejected by the King because he felt such a title belonged solely to the wife of a Prince of Wales, HP Pavilion dv6-3055sa Battery and the Prince of Wales had always been the heir apparent.[32] In 1946, she was inducted into the Welsh Gorsedd of Bards at the National Eisteddfod of Wales.[33] At the end of the war in Europe, on Victory in Europe Day, Elizabeth and her sister mingled anonymously with the celebratory crowds in the streets of London. HP Pavilion dv6-3056sa Battery She later said in a rare interview, "we asked my parents if we could go out and see for ourselves. I remember we were terrified of being recognised ... I remember lines of unknown people linking arms and walking down Whitehall, all of us just swept along on a tide of happiness and relief."[34] Two years later, the princess made her first overseas tour, when she accompanied her parents through southern Africa. During the tourHP Pavilion dv6-3057sa Battery, in a broadcast to the British Commonwealth on her 21st birthday, she pledged: "I declare before you all that my whole life, whether it be long or short, shall be devoted to your service and the service of our great imperial family to which we all belong."[35] MarriageHP Pavilion dv6-3060sa Battery Further information: Wedding of Princess Elizabeth and Philip Mountbatten, Duke of Edinburgh Elizabeth met her future husband, Prince Philip of Greece and Denmark, in 1934 and 1937. HP Pavilion dv6-3065ea Battery[36] After another meeting at the Royal Naval College in Dartmouth in July 1939, Elizabeth – though only 13 years old – fell in love with Philip, and they began to exchange letters.[37] They married on 20 November 1947 at Westminster Abbey. They are second cousins once removed through King Christian IX of Denmark and third cousins through Queen Victoria. HP Pavilion dv6-3067ea BatteryBefore the marriage, Philip renounced his Greek and Danish titles, converted from Greek Orthodoxy to Anglicanism, and adopted the style Lieutenant Philip Mountbatten, taking the surname of his mother's British family.[38] Just before the wedding, he was created Duke of Edinburgh and granted the style of His Royal Highness.[39] HP Pavilion dv6-3068ea Battery The marriage was not without controversy: Philip had no financial standing, was foreign-born (though a British subject who had served in the Royal Navy during the Second World War), and had sisters who had married German noblemen with Nazi links. HP Pavilion dv6-3070ea Battery [40] Marion Crawford wrote, "Some of the King's advisors did not think him good enough for her. He was a prince without a home or kingdom. Some of the papers played long and loud tunes on the string of Philip's foreign origin."[41] Elizabeth's mother was reported, in later biographies, to have opposed the union initially, even dubbing Philip "The Hun"HP Pavilion dv6-3077la Battery.[42] In later life, however, she told biographer Tim Heald that Philip was "an English gentleman".[43] Elizabeth and Philip received 2500 wedding gifts from around the world,[44] but Britain had not yet completely rebounded from the devastation of the war. Elizabeth still required ration coupons to buy the material for her gown, HP Pavilion dv6-3085ea Battery designed by Norman Hartnell.[45] In post-war Britain, it was not acceptable for the Duke of Edinburgh's German relations to be invited to the wedding, including Philip's three surviving sisters.[46] Edward, the former king, was not invited either.[47] Elizabeth gave birth to her first child, Prince Charles, HP Pavilion dv6-3088la Battery on 14 November 1948, less than one month after letters patent were issued by her father allowing her children to use the style and title of a royal prince or princess. They otherwise would not have been entitled to such a status as their father was no longer a royal prince.[48] A second child, Princess Anne, was born in 1950.[49] HP Pavilion dv6-3089la Battery Following their wedding, the couple leased Windlesham Moor near Windsor Castle, until 4 July 1949,[44] when they took up residence at Clarence House in London. At various times between 1949 and 1951, the Duke of Edinburgh was stationed in the British Protectorate of Malta as a serving Royal Navy officer. HP Pavilion dv6-3100 Battery He and Elizabeth lived intermittently, for several months at a time, in the Maltese hamlet of Gwardamanġia, at the Villa Gwardamanġia, the rented home of Philip's uncle, Lord Mountbatten. The children remained in Britain.[50] ReignHP Pavilion dv6-3100sa Battery Accession and coronation George VI's health declined during 1951, and Elizabeth was soon frequently standing in for him at public events. In October of that year, she toured Canada, and visited President Truman in Washington, D.C.; HP Pavilion dv6-3110ea Battery on the trip, her private secretary, Martin Charteris, carried a draft accession declaration for use if the King died while she was on tour.[51] In early 1952, Elizabeth and Philip set out for a tour of Australia and New Zealand by way of Kenya. On 6 February 1952, they had just returned to their Kenyan home, Sagana Lodge, HP Pavilion dv6-3110sa Battery after a night spent at Treetops Hotel, when word arrived of the death of Elizabeth's father. Philip broke the news to the new queen.[52] Martin Charteris asked her to choose a regnal name; she chose to remain Elizabeth, "of course".[53] She was proclaimed queen throughout her realms, HP Pavilion dv6-3111sa Battery and the royal party hastily returned to the United Kingdom.[54] She and the Duke of Edinburgh moved into Buckingham Palace.[55] With Elizabeth's accession it seemed likely that the royal house would bear her husband's name. Lord Mountbatten thought it would be the House of Mountbatten, as Elizabeth would typically have taken Philip's last name on marriage; HP Pavilion dv6-3112sa Battery however Elizabeth's grandmother Queen Mary and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill favoured the retention of the House of Windsor, and so Windsor it remained. The Duke complained, "I am the only man in the country not allowed to give his name to his own children." HP Pavilion dv6-3113sa Battery [56] After the death of Queen Mary on 24 March 1953 and the resignation of Churchill in 1955, the surname Mountbatten-Windsor was adopted in 1960 for Philip and Elizabeth's male-line descendants who do not carry royal titles.[57] Amid preparations for the coronation, HP Pavilion dv6-3114sa BatteryPrincess Margaret informed her sister that she wished to marry Peter Townsend, a divorcee 16 years her senior, with two sons from his previous marriage. The Queen asked them to wait for a year; in the words of Martin Charteris, "the Queen was naturally sympathetic towards the Princess, but I think she thought – she hoped – given time, HP Pavilion dv6-3115sa Battery the affair would peter out."[58] Senior politicians were against the match, and the Church of England did not permit re-marriage after divorce. If Margaret contracted a civil marriage, she would be expected to renounce her right of succession.[59] Eventually, she decided to abandon her plans with Townsend.[60] In 1960, HP Pavilion dv6-3115tx Batteryshe married Antony Armstrong-Jones, who was created Earl of Snowdon the following year. They were divorced in 1978; she did not remarry.[61] Despite the death of Queen Mary ten weeks before, the coronation went ahead on 2 June 1953. Before she died, Mary had asked that the coronation not be delayed.[62] The ceremony in Westminster Abbey, HP Pavilion dv6-3116sa Batteryexcept the anointing and communion, was televised for the first time,[63] and the coverage was instrumental in boosting the medium's popularity; the number of television licences in the United Kingdom doubled to 3 million,[64] and many of the more than 20 million British viewers watched television for the first time in the homes of their friends or neighbours. HP Pavilion dv6-3116tx Battery [65] In North America, just under 100 million viewers watched recorded broadcasts.[66] Elizabeth's coronation gown was commissioned from Norman Hartnell and embroidered on her instructions with the floral emblems of Commonwealth countries:[67] English Tudor rose, Scots thistle, Welsh leek, Irish shamrock, Australian wattle, Canadian maple leaf, HP Pavilion dv6-3117sa Battery New Zealand silver fern, South African protea, lotus flowers for India and Ceylon, and Pakistan's wheat, cotton, and jute.[68] Continuing evolution of the Commonwealth Further information: Historical development of the Commonwealth realms Elizabeth witnessed, over her life, HP Pavilion dv6-3118sa Battery the ongoing transformation of the British Empire into the Commonwealth of Nations.[69] By the time of her accession in 1952, her role as nominal head of multiple independent states was already established.[70] Spanning 1953–54, the Queen and her husband embarked on a six-month around-the-world tour. HP Pavilion dv6-3119sa BatteryShe became the first reigning monarch of Australia and New Zealand to visit those nations.[71] During the tour, crowds were immense; three-quarters of the population of Australia were estimated to have seen the Queen.[72] Throughout her reign, Elizabeth has undertaken state visits to foreign countries, and tours of Commonwealth ones. HP Pavilion dv6-3120sa Battery She is the most widely travelled head of state in history.[73] In 1956, French Prime Minister Guy Mollet and British Prime Minister Sir Anthony Eden discussed the possibility of France joining the Commonwealth. The proposal was never accepted, and the following year France signed the Treaty of Rome, HP Pavilion dv6-3121sa Battery which established the European Economic Community, the precursor of the European Union.[74] In November 1956, Britain and France invaded Egypt in an ultimately unsuccessful attempt to capture the Suez Canal. Lord Mountbatten claimed the Queen was opposed to the invasion, HP Pavilion dv6-3122sa Battery though Eden denied it. Eden resigned two months later.[75] The absence of a formal mechanism within the Conservative Party for choosing a leader meant that, following Eden's resignation, it fell to the Queen to decide whom to commission to form a government. HP Pavilion dv6-3123sa BatteryEden recommended that she consult Lord Salisbury (the Lord President of the Council). Lord Salisbury and Lord Kilmuir (the Lord Chancellor) consulted the Cabinet, Winston Churchill, and the Chairman of the backbench 1922 Committee, as a result of which the Queen appointed their recommended candidate: Harold Macmillan.[76] HP Pavilion dv6-3125sa Battery The Suez crisis and the choice of Eden's successor led in 1957 to the first major personal criticism of the Queen. In a magazine, which he owned and edited,[77] Lord Altrincham accused her of being "out of touch".[78] Altrincham was denounced by public figures and physically attacked by a member of the public appalled at his comments. HP Pavilion dv6-3127sa Battery [79] Six years later in 1963, Macmillan resigned and advised the Queen to appoint the Earl of Home as prime minister, advice that she followed.[80] The Queen again came under criticism for appointing the Prime Minister on the advice of a small number of ministers, or a single minister.[80] In 1965, the Conservatives adopted a formal mechanism for electing a leaderHP Pavilion dv6-3130sa Battery, thus relieving her of involvement.[81] Wikisource has original text related to this article: Queen Elizabeth II's Address to the United Nations General Assembly In 1957, she made a state visit to the United States, where she addressed the United Nations General Assembly. HP Pavilion dv6-3131sa Battery On the same tour, she opened the 23rd Canadian Parliament, becoming the first monarch of Canada to open a parliamentary session.[82] Two years later, she revisited the United States as Queen of Canada and toured Canada,[82][83] despite learning upon landing at St. John's, Newfoundland, HP Pavilion dv6-3140sa Batterythat she was pregnant with her third child.[84] In 1961, she toured Cyprus, India, Pakistan, Nepal, and Iran.[85] On a visit to Ghana the same year, she dismissed fears for her safety, even though her host President Kwame Nkrumah, who had replaced her as head of state, was a target for assassins. HP Pavilion dv6-3141ea Battery [86] Harold Macmillan wrote: "The Queen has been absolutely determined all through ... She is impatient of the attitude towards her to treat her as ... a film star ... She has indeed 'the heart and stomach of a man' ... She loves her duty and means to be a Queen."[86] Before her tour through parts of Quebec in 1964, HP Pavilion dv6-3150sa Batterythe press reported that extremists within the Quebec separatist movement were plotting the Queen's assassination.[87][88][89] No attempt was made, but a riot did break out while she was in Montreal; the Queen's "calmness and courage in the face of the violence" was noted.[90] Elizabeth's pregnancies with Princes Andrew and Edward in 1959 and 1963, HP Pavilion dv6-3163eo Battery respectively, mark the only times she has not performed the State Opening of the British parliament during her reign.[91] In addition to performing traditional ceremonies, she also instituted new practices. Her first royal walkabout, meeting ordinary members of the public, took place during a tour of Australia and New Zealand in 1970.[92] HP Pavilion dv6-3180ea Battery The 1960s and 1970s saw an acceleration in the decolonisation of Africa and the Caribbean. Over 20 countries gained independence from Britain as part of a planned transition to self-government. In 1965, however, Rhodesian Prime Minister Ian Smith declared unilateral independence in opposition to moves toward majority rule. HP Pavilion dv6-3298ea Battery Although the Queen dismissed Smith in a formal declaration and the international community applied sanctions against Rhodesia, Smith's regime survived for over a decade.[93] In February 1974, British Prime Minister Edward Heath called a general election in the middle of the Queen's tour of the Austronesian Pacific Rim and she had to fly back to Britain, HP Pavilion dv6-3299ea Batteryinterrupting the tour.[94] The election resulted in a hung parliament; Heath's Conservatives were not the largest party, but could stay in office if they formed a coalition with the Liberals. Heath only resigned when discussions on forming a coalition government foundered, after which the Queen asked the Leader of the Opposition, HP Pavilion dv6-3300 BatteryLabour's Harold Wilson, to form a government.[95] A year later, at the height of the 1975 Australian constitutional crisis, Australian Prime Minister Gough Whitlam was dismissed from his post by Governor-General Sir John Kerr, after the Opposition-controlled Senate rejected Whitlam's budget proposalsHP Pavilion dv6-3300sg Battery.[96] As Whitlam had a majority in the House of Representatives, Speaker Gordon Scholes appealed to the Queen to reverse Kerr's decision. Elizabeth declined, stating that she would not interfere in decisions reserved by the Constitution of Australia for the governor-general.[97] The crisis fuelled Australian republicanism.[96] Silver JubileeHP Pavilion dv6-3350ef Battery In 1977, Elizabeth marked the Silver Jubilee of her accession. Parties and events took place throughout the Commonwealth, many coinciding with the Queen's associated national and Commonwealth tours. The celebrations re-affirmed the Queen's popularity, HP Pavilion dv6-3350sf Batterydespite virtually coincident negative press coverage of Princess Margaret's separation from her husband.[98] In 1978, Elizabeth endured a state visit to the United Kingdom by Romania's communist dictator Nicolae Ceaușescu, and his wife Elena,[99] though privately she thought they had "blood on their hands".HP Pavilion dv6-3351ef Battery[100] The following year brought two blows: one was the unmasking of Anthony Blunt, former Surveyor of the Queen's Pictures, as a communist spy; the other was the assassination of her relative and in-law Lord Mountbatten by the Provisional Irish Republican Army.[101] According to Paul MartinHP Pavilion dv6-3351sf Battery, Sr., by the end of the 1970s the Queen was worried the Crown "had little meaning for" Canadian Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau.[102] Tony Benn said that the Queen found Trudeau "rather disappointing".[102] Trudeau's supposed republicanism seemed to be confirmed by his antics, HP Pavilion dv6-3355ef Battery such as sliding down banisters at Buckingham Palace and pirouetting behind the Queen's back in 1977, and the removal of various Canadian royal symbols during his term of office.[102] In 1980, Canadian politicians sent to London to discuss the patriation of the Canadian constitution found the Queen "better informed on ... Canada's constitutional case than any of the British politicians or bureaucrats"HP Pavilion dv6-3355sf Battery.[102] She was interested in the constitutional debate after the failure of Bill C-60, which would have affected her role as head of state.[102] Patriation removed the role of the British parliament in the Canadian constitution, but the monarchy was retained. Trudeau said in his memoirs: "The Queen favoured my attempt to reform the Constitution. HP Pavilion dv6-3362ef BatteryI was always impressed not only by the grace she displayed in public at all times, but by the wisdom she showed in private conversation."[103] 1980s During the 1981 Trooping the Colour ceremony, HP Pavilion dv6-3362sf Batteryand only six weeks before the wedding of Charles, Prince of Wales, and Lady Diana Spencer, six shots were fired at the Queen from close range as she rode down The Mall on her horse, Burmese. Police later discovered that the shots were blanks. The 17-year-old assailant, Marcus Sarjeant, HP Pavilion dv6-6000 Battery was sentenced to five years in prison and released after three.[104] The Queen's composure and skill in controlling her mount were widely praised.[105] From April to September 1982, the Queen remained anxious[106] but proud[107] of her son, Prince Andrew, who was serving with British forces during the Falklands War. On 9 JulyHP Pavilion dv6-6000eg Battery, the Queen awoke in her bedroom at Buckingham Palace to find an intruder, Michael Fagan, in the room with her. Remaining calm, and through two calls to the palace police switchboard, she spoke to Fagan while he sat at the foot of her bed until assistance arrived seven minutes later.[108] Though she hosted US President Ronald Reagan at Windsor Castle in 1982, HP Pavilion dv6-6001ea Batteryand visited his Californian ranch in 1983, she was angered when his administration ordered the invasion of Grenada, one of her Caribbean realms, without informing her.[109] Intense media interest in the opinions and private lives of the royal family during the 1980s led to a series of sensational stories in the press, HP Pavilion dv6-6001eg Battery not all of which were entirely true.[110] As Kelvin MacKenzie, editor of The Sun, told his staff: "Give me a Sunday for Monday splash on the Royals. Don't worry if it's not true – so long as there's not too much of a fuss about it afterwards. HP Pavilion dv6-6001sg Battery"[111] Newspaper editor Donald Trelford wrote in The Observer of 21 September 1986: "The royal soap opera has now reached such a pitch of public interest that the boundary between fact and fiction has been lost sight of ... it is not just that some papers don't check their facts or accept denials: they don't care if the stories are true or not." HP Pavilion dv6-6002eg Battery It was reported, most notably in The Sunday Times of 20 July 1986, that Elizabeth was worried that British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher's economic policies fostered social divisions, and was alarmed by high unemployment, a series of riots, the violence of a miners' strike, and Thatcher's refusal to apply sanctions against the apartheid regime in South Africa. HP Pavilion dv6-6002sg BatteryThe sources of the rumours included royal aide Michael Shea and Commonwealth Secretary-General Shridath Ramphal, but Shea claimed his remarks were taken out of context and embellished by speculation.[112] Thatcher reputedly said the Queen would vote for the Social Democratic Party – Thatcher's political opponents. HP Pavilion dv6-6003eg Battery [113] Thatcher's biographer John Campbell claimed "... the report was a piece of journalistic mischief-making".[114] Belying reports of acrimony between them, Thatcher later conveyed her personal admiration for the Queen,[115] and after Thatcher's replacement by John Major, HP Pavilion dv6-6004sa Battery Elizabeth gave two honours in her personal gift to Thatcher: appointment to the Order of Merit and the Order of the Garter.[116] In 1987, the elected Fijian government was deposed in a military coup. Elizabeth, as head of state, supported the attempts of the Governor-General, HP Pavilion dv6-6005ea BatteryRatu Sir Penaia Ganilau, to assert executive power and negotiate a settlement. Coup leader Sitiveni Rabuka deposed Ganilau, abolished the monarchy, and declared Fiji a republic.[117] By the start of 1991, republican feeling in Britain had risen because of press estimates of the Queen's private wealth, which were contradicted by the palace, and reports of affairs and strained marriages among her extended family. HP Pavilion dv6-6005eg Battery [118] The involvement of the younger royals in the charity game show It's a Royal Knockout was ridiculed,[119] and the Queen was the target of satire.[120] 1990s In 1991, in the wake of victory in the Gulf War, Elizabeth became the first British monarch to address a joint session of the United States CongressHP Pavilion dv6-6005sg Battery.[121] The following year, she attempted to save the failing marriage of her eldest son, Charles, by counselling him and his wife, Diana, Princess of Wales, to reconcile.[122] In a speech on 24 November 1992, to mark the 40th anniversary of her accession, the Queen called 1992 her annus horribilis, meaning horrible year.[123] In March, her second son Prince Andrew, Duke of York, and his wife Sarah, HP Pavilion dv6-6006ea Battery Duchess of York, separated. In April, her daughter Anne, Princess Royal, divorced her husband Captain Mark Phillips.[124] During a state visit to Germany in October, angry demonstrators in Dresden threw eggs at her,[125] and in November Windsor Castle suffered severe fire damage. HP Pavilion dv6-6007sg Battery The monarchy received increased criticism and public scrutiny.[126] In an unusually personal speech, Elizabeth said that any institution must expect criticism, but suggested it be done with "a touch of humour, gentleness and understanding".[127] Two days later, Prime Minister John Major announced reforms of the royal finances that had been planned since the previous year, HP Pavilion dv6-6007TX Batteryincluding the Queen paying income tax for the first time, starting in 1993, and a reduction in the civil list.[128] In December, Charles and Diana formally separated.[129] The year ended with a lawsuit as the Queen sued The Sun newspaper for breach of copyright when it published the text of her annual Christmas message two days before its broadcast. HP Pavilion dv6-6008eg BatteryThe newspaper was forced to pay her legal fees, and donated £200,000 to charity.[130] In the ensuing years, public revelations on the state of Charles and Diana's marriage continued.[131] Even though support for republicanism in Britain seemed higher than at any time in living memory, HP Pavilion dv6-6008sa Battery republicanism remained a minority viewpoint and Elizabeth herself had high approval ratings.[132] Criticism was focused on the institution of monarchy itself and the Queen's wider family rather than the Queen's own behaviour and actions.[133] In consultation with Prime Minister Major, Archbishop of Canterbury George Carey, HP Pavilion dv6-6008TX Batteryher private secretary Robert Fellowes, and her husband, she wrote to Charles and Diana at the end of December 1995, saying that a divorce was desirable.[134] A year after the divorce, which took place in 1996, Diana was killed in a car crash in Paris on 31 August 1997. The Queen was on holiday with her son and grandchildren at Balmoral. HP Pavilion dv6-6011tu Battery Diana's two sons wanted to attend church, and so the Queen and Prince Philip took them that morning.[135] After that single public appearance, for five days the Queen and the Duke shielded their grandsons from the intense press interest by keeping them at Balmoral where they could grieve in private. HP Pavilion dv6-6012tu Battery [136] The royal family's seclusion caused public dismay.[137] Pressured by the hostile reaction, the Queen agreed to a live broadcast to the world and returned to London to deliver it on 5 September, the day before Diana's funeral.[138] In the broadcast, she expressed admiration for Diana, HP Pavilion dv6-6013cl Batteryand her feelings "as a grandmother" for Princes William and Harry.[139] As a result, much of the public hostility evaporated.[139] Golden Jubilee In 2002, Elizabeth marked her Golden Jubilee as queen. Her sister and mother died in February and March, respectively, HP Pavilion dv6-6013tu Batteryand the media speculated as to whether the Jubilee would be a success or a failure.[140] She again undertook an extensive tour of her realms, which began in Jamaica in February, where she called the farewell banquet "memorable" after a power cut plunged the King's House, HP Pavilion dv6-6022eg Battery the official residence of the Governor-General, into darkness.[141] As in 1977, there were street parties and commemorative events, and monuments were named to honour the occasion. A million people attended each day of the three-day main Jubilee celebration in London,[142] and the enthusiasm shown by the public for Elizabeth was greater than many journalists had predicted.[143] HP Pavilion dv6-6023tx Battery Though generally healthy throughout her life, in 2003 she had keyhole surgery on both knees, and in June 2005 she cancelled several engagements after contracting a bad cold. In October 2006, she missed the opening of the new Emirates Stadium because of a strained back muscle that had been troubling her since the summerHP Pavilion dv6-6024tx Battery.[144] Two months later, she was seen in public with a bandage on her right hand, which led to press speculation of ill health.[145] She had been bitten by one of her corgis while she was separating two that were fighting.[146] In May 2007, The Daily Telegraph newspaper reported claims from unnamed sources that the Queen was "exasperated and frustrated" by the policies of British Prime Minister Tony Blair, HP Pavilion dv6-6025tx Battery that she had shown concern that the British Armed Forces were overstretched in Iraq and Afghanistan, and that she had raised concerns over rural and countryside issues with Blair repeatedly.[147] She was, however, said to admire Blair's efforts to achieve peace in Northern Ireland.[148] On 20 March 2008, at the Church of Ireland St Patrick's Cathedral, Armagh, HP Pavilion dv6-6026tx Batterythe Queen attended the first Maundy service held outside of England and Wales.[149] At the invitation of Irish President Mary McAleese, in May 2011 the Queen made the first state visit to the Republic of Ireland by a British monarch.[150] Elizabeth addressed the United Nations for a second time in 2010, again in her capacity as queen of all her realms and Head of the Commonwealth. HP Pavilion dv6-6027tx Battery [151] UN Secretary General Ban Ki-moon introduced her as "an anchor for our age".[152] During her visit to New York, which followed a tour of Canada, she officially opened a memorial garden for the British victims of the 11 September attacks.[152] The Queen's visit to Australia in October 2011, her 16th visit since 1954, was called her "farewell tour" in the press because of her age.[153] HP Pavilion dv6-6029tx Battery Diamond Jubilee and beyond Main article: Diamond Jubilee of Elizabeth II Elizabeth's Diamond Jubilee in 2012 marks 60 years as queen, with celebrations throughout her realms, the wider Commonwealth, HP Pavilion dv6-6042sf Batteryand beyond. In a message released on Accession Day, the Queen stated: "In this special year, as I dedicate myself anew to your service, I hope we will all be reminded of the power of togetherness and the convening strength of family, HP Pavilion dv6-6051sf Batteryfriendship and good neighbourliness ... I hope also that this Jubilee year will be a time to give thanks for the great advances that have been made since 1952 and to look forward to the future with clear head and warm heart".[154] She and her husband undertook an extensive tour of the United Kingdom, while her children and grandchildren embarked on royal tours of other Commonwealth realms on the Queen's behalf. HP Pavilion dv6-6051xx Battery [155][156][157] On 4 June, jubilee beacons were lit around the world.[158] She is the longest-lived and second-longest-reigning monarch of the United Kingdom, and the second-longest-serving current head of state (after King Bhumibol Adulyadej of Thailand). She does not intend to abdicate, HP Pavilion dv6-6054ef Battery [159] though the proportion of public duties performed by Prince Charles may increase as Elizabeth reduces her commitments.[160] She is scheduled to open the 2012 Summer Olympics on 27 July and the Paralympics on 29 August in London. Her father, HP Pavilion dv6-6054sf Battery George VI, opened the 1948 London Olympics, and her great-grandfather, Edward VII, opened the 1908 London Olympics. Elizabeth also opened the 1976 Olympics in Montreal and Prince Philip opened the 1956 Olympics in Melbourne.[161] Public perception and characterHP Pavilion dv6-6063sf Battery Since Elizabeth rarely gives interviews, little is known of her personal feelings. As a constitutional monarch, she has not expressed her own political opinions in a public forum. She does have a deep sense of religious and civic duty, and takes her coronation oath seriously. HP Pavilion dv6-6087eg Battery [162] Aside from her official religious role as Supreme Governor of the established Church of England, she personally worships with that church and with the national Church of Scotland.[163] She has demonstrated support for inter-faith relations, and has met with leaders of other religions, including three popes: John XXIII, HP Pavilion dv6-6090sf BatteryJohn Paul II and Benedict XVI. A personal note about her faith often features in her annual Royal Christmas Message broadcast to the Commonwealth, such as in 2000, when she spoke about the theological significance of the millennium marking the 2000th anniversary of the birth of Jesus Christ: HP Pavilion dv6-6090us Battery To many of us, our beliefs are of fundamental importance. For me the teachings of Christ and my own personal accountability before God provide a framework in which I try to lead my life. I, like so many of you, have drawn great comfort in difficult times from Christ's words and example.[164] HP Pavilion dv6-6091nr Battery She is the patron of over 600 organisations and charities.[165] Her main leisure interests include equestrianism and dogs, especially her Pembroke Welsh Corgis.[166] Scenes of a relaxed, informal home life are occasionally acted out; she and her family, from time to time, prepare a meal together and do the washing up afterwards.[167] HP Pavilion dv7 Battery In the 1950s, as a young woman at the start of her reign, Elizabeth was depicted as a glamorous "fairytale Queen".[168] After the trauma of the war, it was a time of hope, a period of progress and achievement heralding a "new Elizabethan age".[169] Lord Altrincham's accusation in 1957 that her speeches sounded like those of a "priggish schoolgirl" was an extremely rare criticism. HP Pavilion dv7-1000 Battery [170] In the late 1960s, attempts to portray a more modern image of monarchy were made in the television documentary Royal Family, and by televising Prince Charles's investiture as Prince of Wales.[171] She took to wearing in public clothes that consist mostly of solid-colour overcoats and decorative hats, which allow her to be seen easily in a crowd.[172] HP Pavilion dv7-1000ea Battery At her Silver Jubilee in 1977, the crowds and celebrations were genuinely enthusiastic,[173] but in the 1980s public criticism of the royal family increased, as the personal and working lives of Elizabeth's children came under media scrutiny.[174] Elizabeth's popularity sank to a low point in the 1990s. HP Pavilion dv7-1000ef BatteryUnder pressure from public opinion, she began to pay income tax for the first time, and Buckingham Palace was opened to the public.[175] Discontent with the monarchy reached its peak on the death of Diana, Princess of Wales, though the Queen's popularity rebounded after her live broadcast to the world five days after Diana's death.[176] HP Pavilion dv7-1000eg Battery In November 1999, a referendum in Australia on the future of the Australian monarchy favoured its retention in preference to an indirectly elected head of state.[177] Polls in Britain in 2006 and 2007 revealed strong support for Elizabeth,[178] and referenda in Tuvalu in 2008 and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines in 2009 both rejected proposals to become republics.[179] HP Pavilion dv7-1000fr Battery Finances Further information: Finances of the British Royal Family Elizabeth's personal fortune has been the subject of speculation for many years. Forbes magazine estimated her net worth at around US$450 million in 2010, HP Pavilion dv7-1001ea Battery [180] but official Buckingham Palace statements in 1993 called estimates of £100 million "grossly overstated".[181] Jock Colville, who was her former private secretary and a director of her bank, Coutts, estimated her wealth in 1971 at £2 million (the equivalent of about £21 million today[182]).[183][184] The Royal Collection, which includes artworks and the Crown Jewels, HP Pavilion dv7-1001ef Battery is not owned by the Queen personally and is held in trust,[185] as are the occupied palaces in the United Kingdom such as Buckingham Palace and Windsor Castle,[186] and the Duchy of Lancaster, a property portfolio valued at £383 million in 2011.[187] Sandringham House and Balmoral Castle are privately owned by the Queen. HP Pavilion dv7-1001eg Battery [186] The British Crown Estate – with holdings of £7.3 billion in 2011[188] – is held in trust for the nation, and cannot be sold or owned by Elizabeth in a private capacity.[189] Titles, styles, honours, and arms Titles and styles Main article: List of titles and honours of Queen Elizabeth IIHP Pavilion dv7-1001tx Battery Elizabeth has held titles throughout her life, as a granddaughter of the monarch, as a daughter of the monarch, through her husband's titles, and eventually as sovereign. In common parlance, she is The Queen or Her Majesty; officially, she has a distinct title in each of her realms: Queen of Canada in Canada, HP Pavilion dv7-1001xx BatteryQueen of Australia in Australia, etc. In the Channel Islands and Isle of Man, which are Crown dependencies rather than separate realms, she is known as Duke of Normandy and Lord of Mann, respectively. Additional styles include Defender of the Faith and Duke of Lancaster. When in conversation with the Queen, HP Pavilion dv7-1002ea Battery the practice is to initially address her as Your Majesty and thereafter as Ma'am.[190] As well as being Sovereign of many orders in her own countries, she has received honours and awards from around the world, and has held honorary military positions throughout the Commonwealth, both before and after her accession. HP Pavilion dv7-1002tx Battery Arms See also: Flags of Elizabeth II From 21 April 1944, Elizabeth's arms consisted of a lozenge bearing the royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom, differenced with a label of three points argent, the centre point bearing a Tudor rose and the first and third a cross of St. GeorgeHP Pavilion dv7-1002xx Battery.[191] After her accession as Sovereign, she adopted the royal coat of arms undifferenced. The design of the shield is also used on the Royal Standard of the United Kingdom. Elizabeth has personal flags for use in Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Jamaica, Barbados, and elsewhere.[192] Isabella I of CastileHP Pavilion dv7-1003ea Battery Isabella I (Spanish: Isabel I, Old Spanish: Ysabel I; Madrigal de las Altas Torres, 22 April 1451 – Medina del Campo, 26 November 1504), nicknamed the Catholic, was Queen of Castile and León. She and her husband, Ferdinand II of Aragon, brought stability to the kingdoms that became the basis for the unification of Spain. HP Pavilion dv7-1003el BatteryLater the two laid the foundations for the political unification of Spain under their grandson, Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor. After a struggle to claim her right to the throne, she reorganized the governmental system, brought the crime rate to the lowest it had been in years, and pulled the kingdom out of the enormous debt her brother had left behind. HP Pavilion dv7-1003eo Battery Her reforms and those she made with her husband had an influence that extended well beyond the borders of their united kingdoms. Isabella and Ferdinand are known for completing the Reconquista, ordering conversion or exile of their Muslim and Jewish subjects and financing Christopher Columbus' 1492 voyage that led to the opening of the "New World".HP Pavilion dv7-1003tx Battery Life and reign Isabella was born in Madrigal de las Altas Torres, Ávila to John II of Castile and Isabella of Portugal on April 22, 1451.[1] She was the granddaughter of Henry III of Castile and Catherine of Lancaster. At the time of her birth, her older half brother Enrique (Henry) was in line for the throne before her. EnriqueHP Pavilion dv7-1003xx Battery, referred to by the English version of his name, Henry, was 26 at that time and married, but he was childless. Her younger brother Alfonso was born two years later on 17 November 1453 and displaced her in the line of succession.[2] When her father, John II of Castile, died in 1454, Henry became King Henry IV. Isabella and Alfonso were left in Henry's care. HP Pavilion dv7-1004ea Battery [3] Her brother Alfonso, mother, and she then moved to Arévalo.[4] These were times of turmoil for Isabella. Isabella lived with her brother and her mother in a castle in poor conditions, where they also suffered from a shortage of money. Although her father arranged in his will for his children to be financially well taken care of, HP Pavilion dv7-1004tx Battery her half-brother Henry did not comply with their father's wishes, either from a desire to keep his half-siblings restricted or from ineptitude.[3] Even though the living conditions were lackluster, under the careful eye of her mother, Isabella was instructed in lessons of practical piety and in the deep reverence for religion.[4] HP Pavilion dv7-1005ef Battery When King Henry's wife, Joan of Portugal, was about to give birth, Isabella and her brother were summoned to court (Segovia) and taken away from their mother to be under more control and direct supervision by the king and finish their educationsHP Pavilion dv7-1005eg Battery. Alfonso was put under the care of a tutor while Isabella became part of the Queen's household.[5] Conditions of Isabella's life improved in Segovia. She always had food and clothing and lived in a castle that was adorned with gold and silver. Isabella's basic education consisted of reading, HP Pavilion dv7-1005eo Battery spelling, writing, grammar, mathematics, art, chess, dancing, embroidery, music, and religious instruction. She and her ladies-in-waiting entertained themselves with art, embroidery, and music. She lived a relaxed lifestyle, but she rarely left Segovia as Henry forbade her from doing so. Her brother was keeping her from the political turmoils going on in the kingdom, HP Pavilion dv7-1005es Battery though Isabella had full knowledge of what was going on and her role in the feuds. The noblemen who were anxious for power confronted the King, demanding that his younger half brother Infante Alfonso be named his successor. They even went as far as to ask Alfonso to seize the throne. HP Pavilion dv7-1005tx Battery The nobles, now in control of Alfonso and claiming him to be the true heir, clashed with Henry's forces at the Second Battle of Olmedo in 1467. The battle was a draw. Henry agreed to make Alfonso his heir, provided Alfonso would marry his daughter, Joanna.[6] Soon after Alfonso was named Prince of Asturias, the title given to the heir of Castile and Leon, HP Pavilion dv7-1006tx Batteryhe died, likely of the plague. The nobles who had supported him suspected poisoning. As she had been named in her brother's will as his successor, the nobles asked Isabella to take his place as champion of the rebellion. However, support for the rebels had begun to wane, and Isabella preferred a negotiated settlement to continuing the war.[7] HP Pavilion dv7-1007ef Battery She met with Henry and, at Toros de Guisando, they reached a compromise: the war would stop, Henry would name Isabella his heir instead of Joanna, and Isabella would not marry without Henry's consent but he would not be able to force her to marry against her will.[8] Isabella's side came out with most of what they desired, though they did not go so far as to officially depose Henry: they were not powerful enough to do soHP Pavilion dv7-1007tx Battery, and Isabella did not want to jeopardize the principle of fair inherited succession, since it was upon this idea that she had based her argument for legitimacy as heir. [edit]Marriage for political gain From an extremely early ageHP Pavilion dv7-1008ef Battery, Isabella was forced into several betrothals by her brother Henry, all of which were beneficial to his political needs of the time. By the age of sixteen, Isabella made her debut in the matrimonial market with a betrothal to Ferdinand the son of John II of Aragon (whose family was a cadet branch of the House of Trastámara). At the time the two kings, HP Pavilion dv7-1008eg Battery Henry and John, were eager to show their mutual love and confidence and they believed that this double alliance would make their eternal friendship obvious to the world.[9] This arrangement, however, did not last long. When Alfonso V died in 1458, all of his territoriesHP Pavilion dv7-1008tx Battery, including the island of Sicily, were left to his brother John II. John now had a stronger position than ever before and no longer needed the security of Henry's friendship. Henry was now in need of a new alliance. He saw the chance for this much needed new friendship in Charles IV of Navarre, another son of John II of AragonHP Pavilion dv7-1009tx Battery.[10] Charles was constantly in dispute with his father and because of this he secretly entered into an alliance with Henry IV of Castile. A major part of the alliance was that a marriage was to be arranged between Charles and Isabella. The fact that Isabella was only ten years old and Charles was nearly forty was never considered an issue. HP Pavilion dv7-1010ed Battery When John II learned of this arranged marriage he was outraged. Isabella had been destined for his favorite son, Ferdinand, and in his eyes this alliance was still valid. John II had his son Charles thrown in prison with charges of plotting against his father's life and the marriage never came to be.[11] In 1464 an attempt was made to marry Isabella to Alfonso V of Portugal, HP Pavilion dv7-1010ef BatteryHenry's brother-in-law. Through the medium of the Queen and Count of Ledesma, a Portuguese alliance was made. Isabella, however, was wary of the marriage and refused to consent.[12] A civil war broke out in Castile over King Henry's inability to act as sovereign. Henry now needed a quick way to please the rebels of the kingdom. HP Pavilion dv7-1010eg Battery As part of an agreement to restore peace, Isabella was to be betrothed to Pedro Giron, Maestre de Calatrava and brother to the King’s favorite Don Juan Pacheco. In return the Master would pay into the impoverished royal treasury an enormous sum of money. Seeing little other choice to find the peace he desperately needed, HP Pavilion dv7-1010el Battery Henry agreed to the marriage. Isabella was aghast and prayed to God for the marriage to never come to pass. Her prayers were answered when Don Pedro suddenly fell ill and died while on his way to meet his fiancée.[13] When Henry recognized Isabella as his heir on 19 September 1468HP Pavilion dv7-1010eo Battery, he also promised that his sister should not be compelled to marry against her will, while she in return agreed to obtain his consent.[8] It seemed that finally the years of failed attempts at political marriages were over. There was talk of a marriage to a brother of Edward IV of England but this alliance was never seriously considered.[8] Once again in 1468, HP Pavilion dv7-1010ep Battery a marriage proposal arrived from Alfonso V of Portugal. Going against his promises made in September, Henry tried to make the marriage a reality. If Isabella married Alfonso, Henry's daughter Joanna would marry Alfonso's son John II and thus, after the death of the old king, John and Joanna could inherit Portugal and CastileHP Pavilion dv7-1010es Battery.[14] Isabella refused and made a secret promise to marry her cousin and very first betroth, Ferdinand of Aragon. After this failed attempt Henry once again went against his promises and tried to marry Isabella to Louis XI’s brother Charles, Duke of Berry. HP Pavilion dv7-1010et Battery [15] In Henry's eyes this alliance would cement the friendship of Castile and France as well as remove Isabella from Castilian affairs. Isabella once again refused the proposal. Meanwhile John II of Aragon negotiated in secret with Isabella a wedding to his son Ferdinand. HP Pavilion dv7-1010tx Battery On 18 October 1469, the formal betrothal took place.[16] Because Isabella and Ferdinand were second cousins they stood within the prohibited degrees of consanguinity and the marriage would not be legal unless a dispensation from the Pope was granted. HP Pavilion dv7-1011tx BatteryWith the help of Rodrigo Borgia (later Alexander VI) Isabella and Ferdinand were presented with a supposed Papal Bull by Pius II authorizing Ferdinand to marry within the third degree of consanguinity, making their marriage legal.[16] Isabella escaped the court of Henry with the excuse of visiting her brother Alfonso's tomb in Ávila. Ferdinand, HP Pavilion dv7-1012tx Batteryon the other hand, crossed Castile in secret disguised as a merchant. Finally, on 19 October 1469 they married in the Palacio de los Vivero in the city of Valladolid. [edit]War with Portugal Isabella’s reign was off to a rocky start from the very beginning. HP Pavilion dv7-1013tx Battery Because of her brother's choice to name Isabella as his successor, when she ascended to the throne in 1474, there were already several plots against her. The Marquis of Villena and his followers maintained that the Infanta Joanna, daughter of Henry IV, was the rightful queen.[17] Shortly after the Marquis made his claim, a long time supporter of Isabella, HP Pavilion dv7-1014ca Battery the Archbishop of Toledo left court to plot with his great-nephew the Marquis. The Archbishop and Marquis made plans to have the Infanta Joanna marry her uncle, King Alfonso V of Portugal and invade Castile to claim the throne for themselves.[18] In May 1475, HP Pavilion dv7-1014tx BatteryAlfonso and his army crossed into Spain and advanced to Plasencia and here he married the young Joanna.[19] A long and bloody war for the Castilian succession took place hereafter. The war went back and forth for almost a year until 1 March 1476 when the Battle of Toro took place. A battle where both sides claimed[20][21] and celebrated[21][22] the victory: HP Pavilion dv7-1015eg Batterythe troops of Afonso V were won[23][24] by the Castilian centre-left commanded by the Duke of Alba and Cardinal Mendoza while the forces led by Prince John of Portugal defeated[25][26][27][28] the Castilian right wing and remained in possession[29][30] of the battlefield. HP Pavilion dv7-1015el Battery But despite its uncertain[31][32] outcome, the Battle of Toro represented a great political victory[33][34][35][36] for the Catholic Monarchs, assuring them the throne since the supporters of Juana disbanded and the Portuguese army, without allies, left Castile. As summarized by the historian Justo L. HP Pavilion dv7-1015eo BatteryGonzález: "Both armies faced each other at the camps of Toro resulting in an indecisive battle. But while the Portuguese King reorganized his troops, Ferdinand sent news to all the cities of Castile and to several foreign kingdoms informing them about a huge victory where the Portuguese were crushed. HP Pavilion dv7-1015tx Battery Faced with these news, the party of “la Beltraneja" [Juana] was dissolved and the Portuguese were forced to return to their kingdom."[37] With great political vision, Isabella took advantage of the moment and convoked courts at Madrigal-Segovia (April-October 1476)[38] where her daughter was sworn heiress of Castile's crown. HP Pavilion dv7-1016nr Battery That was equivalent to legitimizing Isabella’s own throne. In August of the same year, Isabella proved her abilities as a powerful ruler on her own. A rebellion broke out in Segovia and Isabella rode out to suppress it, as her husband was off fighting at the time. Going against the better judgment of her male advisorsHP Pavilion dv7-1016tx Battery, Isabella rode by herself into the city to negotiate with the rebels. She was successful and the rebellion was quickly brought to an end.[39] Two years later, Isabella also secured her place as ruler a bit more with the birth of her son John, Prince of Asturias on June 30, 1478. To many, the presence of a male heir legitimized her place as ruler. HP Pavilion dv7-1017eg Battery Meanwhile the Castilian and Portuguese fleets fought for the hegemony in the Atlantic ocean and for the wealth of Guinea (Gold and Slaves) where was fought the decisive naval Battle of Guinea.[40] At Alcáçovas, HP Pavilion dv7-1017tx Battery Isabella and Ferdinand had conquered the throne but the Portuguese exclusive right of navigation and commerce in all the Atlantic ocean south of the Canary caused that Spain stayed practically "out" of the Atlantic and deprived from the Gold of Guinea, which induced anger in Andaluzia.[40] Spanish academic António Rumeu de Armas stated that with the Peace treaty of AlcáçovasHP Pavilion dv7-1018eg Battery,1479, the Catholic Monarchs "... buy the peace at an excessively expensive price... [51] and historian Mª Monserrat Léon Guerrero added that they " find themselves forced to abandon their expansion by the Atlantic... "[52] It would be Columbus who would free Castile from this difficult situation of blocked overseas expansion, HP Pavilion dv7-1018tx Battery because his New World discovery led to a new and much more balanced sharing of the Atlantic at Tordesilhas in 1494. The orders received by Columbus in his first voyage (1492) are elucidative: “…[the Catholic Monarchs] have always in mind that the limits signed in the “share” of Alcáçovas should not be overcome, and thus they insist with Columbus to sail along the parallel of Canary.”[52] Thus, HP Pavilion dv7-1019tx Batterywhen sponsoring the Columbine adventure to the West the Monarchs were trying the only remaining way of expansion. As it is known, they would be extremely successful on this issue. Isabella had proven herself to be a fighter and tough monarch from the start. Now that she had succeeded in securing her place on the Castilian throne, HP Pavilion dv7-1020ea Battery she could now begin to make the reforms that the kingdom desperately needed. [edit]Reform [edit]Regulation of crime When Isabella came to the throne in 1474, HP Pavilion dv7-1020eg Battery Castile was in a state of despair thanks to her brother Henry’s reign. It was not unknown that Henry IV was a big spender and did little to enforce the laws of his kingdom. It was even said by one Castilian citizen of the time that murder, rape, and robbery happened without punishment[53] Because of thisHP Pavilion dv7-1020el Battery, Isabella needed desperately to find a way to reform her kingdom. [edit]La Santa Hermandad Isabella’s first major reform came during the cortes of Madrigal in 1476 in the form of a police force, La Santa Hermandad (the Holy Brotherhood). HP Pavilion dv7-1020eo BatteryWhile 1476 was not the first time that Castile had seen the Hermandad, it was however the first time that the police force was used by the crown.[54] During the late medieval period, the expression hermandad had been used to describe groups of men who came together of their own accord to regulate law and order by patrolling the roads and countryside and punishing malefactors. HP Pavilion dv7-1020es BatteryThese brotherhoods, however, had usually been suppressed by the monarch. Before 1476, the justice system in most parts of the country was effectively under the control of dissident members of the nobility rather than royal officials. To fix this problem, during the Cortes of 1476, a general Hermandad was established for Castile, HP Pavilion dv7-1020ev Battery Leon, and Asturias. The police force was to be made up of locals who were to regulate the crime occurring in the kingdom. It was to be paid for by a tax of 1800 mavedus on every one hundred households.[55] In 1477, Isabella visited Estremadura and Andalusia to introduce this more efficient police force there as well. HP Pavilion dv7-1020ew Battery [56] [edit]Other criminal reforms Keeping with her reformation of the regulation of laws, in 1481 Isabella charged two officials with restoring peace in Galicia. This turbulent province had been the prey of tyrant nobles since the days of Isabella’s father, HP Pavilion dv7-1020tx Battery John II. Robbers infested the highways and oppressed the smaller towns and villages. These officials set off with the Herculean task of restoring peace for the province. The officials were successful. They succeeded in driving over 1,500 robbers from Galicia.[57] [edit]FinancesHP Pavilion dv7-1020us Battery From the very beginning of her reign, Isabella fully grasped the importance of restoring the Crown's finances. The reign of Henry IV had left the kingdom of Castile in great debt. Upon examination, it was found that the chief cause of the nation’s poverty was the wholesale alienation of royal estates during Henry’s reignHP Pavilion dv7-1021tx Battery.[58] In order to make money, Henry had sold off royal estates at prices well below their value. The Cortes of Toledo of 1480 came to the conclusion that the only hope of lasting financial reform lay in a resumption of these alienated lands and rents. This decision was warmly approved by many leading nobles of the Court but Isabella was reluctant to take such large actions. HP Pavilion dv7-1022tx BatteryIt was decided that the Cardinal of Spain would hold an enquiry into the tenure of estates and rents acquired during Henry IV’s reign. Those that had not been granted as a reward for services were to be restored without compensation; while those that had been sold at a price far below their real value were to be brought back at the same sum. HP Pavilion dv7-1023cl Battery While many of the nobility were forced to pay large sums of money for their estates, the royal treasury became ever richer. Isabella’s one stipulation was that there would be no revocation of gifts made to churches, hospitals, or the poor.[59] Another issue of money was the over production of coinage and the abundance of mints in the kingdom. HP Pavilion dv7-1023em BatteryDuring Henry’s reign the number of mints regularly producing money had increased from just five to one hundred and fifty.[58] Much of the coinage produced in these mints was nearly worthless. During the first year of her reign Isabella established a monopoly over the royal mints and fixed a legal standard to which the coinage must approximate. HP Pavilion dv7-1023tx Battery By shutting down many of the mints and taking royal control over the production of money, Isabella restored the confidence of the public in the crown’s ability to handle the kingdom’s finance. [edit]Government It has been noted that both Isabella and Ferdinand established very few new governmental and administrative institutions in their respective kingdoms. HP Pavilion dv7-1024el Battery Especially in Castile, the main achievement was to use more effectively the institutions that had existed during the reigns of John II and Henry IV.[60] Historically, the center of the Castilian government had been the royal household, together with its surrounding court. The household was traditionally divided into two overlapping bodies. HP Pavilion dv7-1024tx Battery The first body was made up of household officials, mainly people of the nobility, who carried out governmental and political functions for which they received special payment. The second body was made up of some 200 permanent servants or continos who performed a wide range of confidential functions on behalf of the rulers. HP Pavilion dv7-1025eg Battery [61] By the 1470s when Isabella began to take a firm grip on the royal administration, the senior offices of the royal household were simply honorary titles and held strictly by the nobility. The positions of a more secretarial nature were often held by senior churchmen. Substantial revenues were attached to such offices and were therefore enjoyed greatly, HP Pavilion dv7-1025nr Battery on an effectively hereditary basis, by the great Castilian houses of nobility. While the nobles held the titles, those individuals of lesser breeding did the real work.[62] Traditionally, the main advisory body to the rulers of Castile was the Royal Council. The Council, under the monarch, HP Pavilion dv7-1025tx Batteryhad full power to resolve all legal and political disputes. The Council was responsible for supervising all senior administrative officials, such as the Crown representatives in all of the major towns. It was also the supreme judicial tribunal of the kingdom.[63] In 1480, during the Cortes of Toledo, Isabella made many reforms to the Royal Council. HP Pavilion dv7-1026tx BatteryPreviously there had been two distinct yet overlapping categories of royal councilor. One formed a group which possessed both judicial and administrative responsibilities. This portion consisted of some bishops, some nobles, and an increasingly important element of professional administrators with legal training known as letrados. The second category of traditional councilor had a less formal role. HP Pavilion dv7-1027ca BatteryThis role depended greatly on the individuals’ political influence and personal influence with the monarch. During Isabella’s reign, the role of this second category was completely eliminated.[64] As mentioned previously, Isabella had little care for personal bribes or favors. Because of this, this second type of councilor, usually of the nobility, HP Pavilion dv7-1027tx Battery was only allowed to attend the council of Castile as an observer. Isabella began to rely more on the professional administrators than ever before. These men were mostly of the bourgeoisie or lesser nobility. The Council was also rearranged and it was officially settled that one bishop, three caballeros, and eight or nine lawyers would serve on the council at a time. While the nobles were no longer directly involved in the matters of state, HP Pavilion dv7-1028tx Battery they were welcome to attend the meetings. Isabel hoped by forcing the nobility to choose whether to participate or not would weed out those who were not dedicated to the state and its cause.[65] Isabella also saw the need to provide a personal relationship between herself as the monarch and her subjects. Therefore, HP Pavilion dv7-1029eg BatteryIsabella and Ferdinand set aside a time every Friday during which they themselves would sit and allow people to come to them with complaints. This was a new form of personal justice that Castile had not seen before. The Council of State was reformed and presided over by the King and Queen. This department of public affairs dealt mainly with foreign negotiations, HP Pavilion dv7-1029tx Batteryhearing embassies, and transacting business with the Court of Rome. In addition to these departments, there was also a Supreme Court of the Santa Hermandad, a Council of Finance, and a Council for settling purely Aragonese matters.[66] Although Isabella made many reforms that seem to have made the Cortes stronger, HP Pavilion dv7-1030eb Batteryin actuality the Cortes lost political power during the reigns of Isabella and Ferdinand. Isabella and her husband moved in the direction of a non-parliamentary government and the Cortes became an almost passive advisory body, giving automatic assent to legislation which had been drafted by the royal administration. HP Pavilion dv7-1030ef Battery [67] After the reforms of the Cortes of Toledo, the Queen ordered a noted jurist, Alfonso Diaz de Montalvo, to undertake the task of clearing away legal rubbish and compiling what remained into a comprehensive code. Within four years the work stood completed in eight bulky volumes and the Ordenanzas Reales took their place on legal bookshelvesHP Pavilion dv7-1030eg Battery.[68] [edit]Events of 1492 [edit]Granada At the end of the Reconquista, only Granada was left for Isabella and Ferdinand to conquer. HP Pavilion dv7-1030el Battery The Emirate of Granada had been held by the Muslim Nasrid emirate since the mid-thirteenth century.[69] Protected by natural barriers and fortified towns, it had withstood the long process of the reconquista. On 1 February 1482, the king and queen reached Medina del Campo and this is generally considered the beginning of the war for Granada. HP Pavilion dv7-1030en Battery While Isabella's and Ferdinand's involvement in the war was apparent from the start, Granada's leadership was divided and never able to present united front.[70] However, it still took ten years to conquer Granada, culminating in 1492. The Spanish monarchs recruited soldiers from many European countries and improved their artillery with the latest and best cannons. HP Pavilion dv7-1030eo Battery [71] Systematically, they proceeded to take the kingdom piece by piece. In 1485 they laid siege to Ronda, which surrendered after only a fortnight due to extensive bombardment.[72] The following year, Loja was taken, and again Muhammad XII was captured and released. One year later, with the fall of Málaga, HP Pavilion dv7-1030ep Batterythe western part of the Muslim Nasrid kingdom had fallen into Spanish hands. The eastern province succumbed after the fall of Baza in 1489. The siege of Granada began in the spring of 1491 and at the end of the year, Muhammad XII surrendered. On 2 January 1492 Isabella and Ferdinand entered Granada to receive the keys of the city and the principal mosque was reconsecrated as a churchHP Pavilion dv7-1030es Battery.[73] The Treaty of Granada signed later that year was to assure religious rights to the Muslims, which did not last. During the war, Isabella noted the abilities and energy of Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba and made him one of the two commissoners for the negotiations. Under her patronage, De Córdoba went on to an extraordinary military career that revolutionized the organization and tactics of the emerging Spanish military; HP Pavilion dv7-1030ev Batterychanging the nature of warfare and altering the European balance of power. [edit]Columbus and Portuguese relations Main article: Christopher Columbus Just three months after entering Granada, Queen Isabella agreed to sponsor Christopher Columbus on an expedition to reach the Indies by sailing west (2000 miles, according to Columbus). HP Pavilion dv7-1030ez Battery [74] The crown agreed to pay a sum of money as a concession from monarch to subject.[75] On 3 August 1492 his expedition departed and arrived in what is now known as Watling Island on October 12. He named it San Salvador, after Jesus the Savior.[75] He returned the next year and presented his findings to the monarchs, HP Pavilion dv7-1030tx Battery bringing natives and gold under a hero's welcome. Although Columbus was sponsored by the Castilian queen, treasury accounts show no royal payments to him until 1493, after his first voyage was complete.[76] Spain entered a Golden Age of exploration and colonization, HP Pavilion dv7-1031tx Battery the period of the Spanish Empire. The Portuguese did not recognize that South America belonged to the Spanish because it was on Portugal's sphere of influence and the Portuguese King John II threatened to send an army to claim the land for the Portuguese. In 1494, by the Treaty of Tordesillas, Isabella and Ferdinand agreed to divide the Earth, HP Pavilion dv7-1032tx Batteryoutside of Europe, with king John II of Portugal. [edit]Expulsion of the Jews Main articles: Alhambra Decree and Spanish Inquisition With the institution of the Roman Catholic Inquisition in Spain, and with the Dominican friar Tomás de Torquemada as the first Inquisitor General, HP Pavilion dv7-1033tx Batterythe Catholic Monarchs pursued a policy of religious unity. Though Isabella opposed taking harsh measures against Jews on economic grounds, Torquemada was able to convince Ferdinand. On 31 March 1492, the Alhambra Decree for the expulsion of the Jews was issued (See main article on Inquisition). HP Pavilion dv7-1034ca Battery[77] The Jews had until the end of July, three months, to leave the country and they were not to take with them gold, silver, money, arms, or horses.[77] Traditionally, it had been claimed that as many as 200,000 Jews left Spain, but recent historians have shown that such figures are exaggerated: Henry Kamen has shown that out of a total population of 80,000 Jews, a maximum of 40,000 left and the rest convertedHP Pavilion dv7-1034tx Battery.[78] Hundreds of those that remained came under the Inquisition's investigations into relapsed conversos (Marranos) and the Judaizers who had been abetting them.[79] [edit]Later years Isabella received the title of Catholic Monarch by Pope Alexander VI, a pope of whose behaviour and involvement in secular matters Isabella did not approve. HP Pavilion dv7-1035ef BatteryAlong with the physical unification of Spain, Isabella and Ferdinand embarked on a process of spiritual unification, trying to bring the country under one faith (Roman Catholicism). As part of this process, the Inquisition became institutionalized. After a Muslim uprising in 1499, and further troubles thereafter, the Treaty of Granada was broken in 1502, HP Pavilion dv7-1035em Batteryand Muslims were ordered to either become Christians or to leave. Isabella's confessor, Cisneros, was named Archbishop of Toledo. He was instrumental in a program of rehabilitation of the religious institutions of Spain, laying the groundwork for the later Counter-Reformation. As Chancellor, he exerted more and more power. HP Pavilion dv7-1035eo Battery Isabella and her husband had created an empire and in later years were consumed with administration and politics; they were concerned with the succession and worked to link the Spanish crown to the other rulers in Europe. By early 1497 all the pieces seemed to be in place: John, Prince of Asturias, HP Pavilion dv7-1035es Batterymarried Archduchess Margaret of Austria, establishing the connection to the Habsburgs. The eldest daughter, Isabella, married Manuel I of Portugal, and Joanna was married to another Habsburg prince, Philip of Burgundy. However, Isabella's plans for her children did not work out. John died shortly after his marriage. HP Pavilion dv7-1038ca Battery Isabella, Princess of Asturias, died in childbirth and her son Miguel died at the age of two. Queen Isabella I's crowns passed to her daughter, Joanna of Castile, and her son-in-law, Philip of Habsburg.[80] Isabella officially withdrew from governmental affairs on 14 September 1504 and she died that same year on 26 November in Medina del Campo, HP Pavilion dv7-1040ec Battery but it is said that she had truly been in decline since the death of her son Prince John in 1497.[81] She is entombed in Granada in the Capilla Real, which was built by her grandson, Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor (Carlos I of Spain), alongside her husband Ferdinand, her daughter Joanna and Joanna's husband Philip; HP Pavilion dv7-1040ef Battery and Isabella's 2-year old grandson, Miguel (the son of Isabella's daughter, also named Isabella, and King Manuel I of Portugal). The museum next to the Capilla Real holds her crown and scepter. [edit]Appearance and personality Isabella was short but of strong stocky build, of a very fair complexion, and had blue eyes, and had a hair color that was between reddish-blonde and auburn; HP Pavilion dv7-1040em Battery these were typical in members of the Trastámara family who were descendants of Peter I of Castile.[citation needed] Her daughters, Joanna and Catherine, were thought to resemble her the most. Isabella maintained an austere, temperate lifestyle, and her religious spirit influenced her the most in life. In spite of her hostility towards the Muslims in Andalusia which now is Spain and Portugal, HP Pavilion dv7-1040en Battery Isabella developed a taste for Moorish decor and style. Of her, contemporaries said: Fernández de Oviedo: "To see her speak was divine." Andrés Bernáldez: "She was an endeavored woman, very powerful, very prudent, wise, very honest, chaste, devout, discreet, truthful, clear, without deceit. HP Pavilion dv7-1040eo BatteryWho could count the excellences of this very Catholic and happy Queen, always very worthy of praises." Hernando del Pulgar: "A very good woman; exemplary, of good and commendable customs... nothing incomplete was ever seen in her personality... her works were never badly done, HP Pavilion dv7-1040es Battery her words were never poor ones" ; "She had great moderation in her movements and in the expression of her emotions... her self-control extended to dissemble the pain of labor, to not say nor show the grief that in that hour women feel and show" ; "Very chaste, full of honesty, never demonstrating dishonesty." HP Pavilion dv7-1040et Battery Ferdinand, in his testament, declared that "she was exemplary in all acts of virtue and of fear of God." Fray Francisco Jiménez de Cisneros, her confessor, praised "her purity of heart, her big heart and the grandness of her soul". [edit]FamilyHP Pavilion dv7-1040ew Battery Isabella and Ferdinand had five surviving children, four daughters and one son. They also suffered a miscarried son and a stillborn daughter: Isabella (1470–1498) married firstly to Alfonso, Prince of Portugal, no issue. Married secondly to Manuel I of Portugal, had issue. HP Pavilion dv7-1045eg Battery Miscarried son. Miscarried on 31 May 1475 in Cebreros John (1478–1497), Prince of Asturias. Married Archduchess Margaret of Austria, no issue. Juana (1479–1555), HP Pavilion dv7-1045tx BatteryQueen of Castile. Married Philip the Handsome, had issue. Maria (1482–1517), married Manuel I of Portugal, her sister's widower, had issue. Stillborn daughter. Identical twin sister of Maria. Born 1 July 1482 Catherine, queen Catherine of Aragon (1485–1536), married firstly to Arthur, Prince of Wales, no issue. HP Pavilion dv7-1048ez Battery Married his younger brother, Henry VIII of England and was mother of Mary I of England. Towards the end of her life family tragedies overwhelmed her, although she met these reverses with grace and fortitude. The death of her beloved son and heir and the miscarriage of his wife, HP Pavilion dv7-1050ea Battery the death of her daughter Isabella and Isabella's son Miguel (who could have united the kingdoms of the Catholic Monarchs with that of Portugal), the supposed madness of her daughter Joanna (that defied her in public in Medina del Campo)[citation needed] and the indifference of Philip the Handsome, and the uncertainty Catherine was in after the death of her husband submerged her in profound sadness that made her dress in black for the rest of her lifetime. HP Pavilion dv7-1050eb BatteryHer strong spirituality is well understood from the words she said after hearing of her son’s death: “The Lord gave him to me, the Lord hath taken him from me, glory be His holy name.” [edit]Isabella commemorated Isabella was the first woman to be featured on U.S. HP Pavilion dv7-1050ed Batterypostage stamps,[82] namely on three stamps of the Columbian Issue, also in celebration of Columbus. She appears in the 'Columbus soliciting aid of Isabella', 5-cent issue, and on the Spanish court scene replicated on the 15-cent Columbian, and on the $4 issue, in full portrait, side by side with Columbus. HP Pavilion dv7-1050ef Battery The $4 stamp is the only stamp of that denomination ever issued and one which collectors prize not only for its rarity (only 30,000 were printed) but its beauty, an exquisite carmine with some copies having a crimson hue. Mint specimens of this commemorative have been sold for more than $20,000HP Pavilion dv7-1050eg Battery.[83] Isabella was also the first named woman to appear on a United States coin, an 1893 commemorative quarter, celebrating the 400th anniversary of Columbus's first voyage.