Afghanistan（2）

Barakzai dynasty and Western influence

Further information: European influence in Afghanistan and Reforms of Amanullah Khan and civil war

British and allied forces at Kandahar after the 1880 Battle of Kandahar, during the Second Anglo-Afghan War. The large defensive wall around the city was removed in the early 1930s by the order of King Mohammed Nadir Shah(Sony VAIO VGN-SR92S battery), the father of King Zahir Shah.

Following the 1842 Battle of Gandamak that was fought between Akbar Khan and William Elphinstone, the British established diplomatic relations with the Afghan government but withdrew all forces from the country. They returned during the Second Anglo-Afghan War in the late 1870s for about two year military operations, which was to defeat Ayub Khan and assist Abdur Rahman Khan establish authority(Sony VAIO VGN-SR92PS battery). The United Kingdom began to exercise a great deal of influence after this and even controlled the state's foreign policy. In 1893, Mortimer Durand made Amir Abdur Rahman Khan sign a controversial agreement in which the ethnic Pashtun and Baloch territories were divided by the Durand Line. This was a standard divide and rule policy of the British and would lead to strained relations, especially with the later new state of Pakistan(Sony VAIO VGN-SR92NS battery).

King Amanullah Khan sitting next to German President Paul von Hindenburg in February 1928. His six-month European tour initiated an alliance between Afghanistan and Germany.

After the Third Anglo-Afghan War and the signing of the Treaty of Rawalpindi in 1919, King Amanullah Khan declared Afghanistan a sovereign and fully independent state(Sony VAIO VGN-SR91US battery). He moved to end his country's traditional isolation by establishing diplomatic relations with the international community and, following a 1927–28 tour of Europe and Turkey, introduced several reforms intended to modernize his nation. A key force behind these reforms was Mahmud Tarzi, an ardent supporter of the education of women(Sony VAIO VGN-SR91S battery). He fought for Article 68 of Afghanistan's 1923 constitution (declared through a loya jirga), which made elementary education compulsory.

Some of the reforms that were actually put in place, such as the abolition of the traditional burqa for women and the opening of a number of co-educational schools, quickly alienated many tribal and religious leaders. Faced with overwhelming armed opposition, Amanullah Khan was forced to abdicate in January 1929 after Kabul fell to rebel forces led by Habibullah Kalakani(Sony VAIO VGN-SR59VG battery). Prince Mohammed Nadir Shah, Amanullah's cousin, in turn defeated and killed Kalakani in November 1929, and was declared King Nadir Shah. He abandoned the reforms of Amanullah Khan in favor of a more gradual approach to modernisation but was assassinated in 1933 by Abdul Khaliq, a Hazara school student(Sony VAIO VGN-SR59VG/H battery).

Mohammed Zahir Shah, Nadir Shah's 19-year-old son, succeeded to the throne and reigned from 1933 to 1973. Until 1946 Zahir Shah ruled with the assistance of his uncle, who held the post of Prime Minister and continued the policies of Nadir Shah. Another of Zahir Shah's uncles, Shah Mahmud Khan, became Prime Minister in 1946 and began an experiment allowing greater political freedom(Sony VAIO VGN-SR55TF/B battery), but reversed the policy when it went further than he expected. He was replaced in 1953 by Mohammed Daoud Khan, the king's cousin and brother-in-law. Daoud Khan sought a closer relationship with the Soviet Union and a more distant one towards Pakistan. Afghanistan remained neutral and was neither a participant in World War II, nor aligned with either power bloc in the Cold War(Sony VAIO VGN-SR51MF battery). However, it was a beneficiary of the latter rivalry as both the Soviet Union and the United States vied for influence by building Afghanistan's main highways, airports and other vital infrastructure. By the late 1960s, many Western travelers were using these as part of the hippie trail. In 1973, while King Zahir Shah was on an official overseas visit, Daoud Khan launched a bloodless coup and became the first President of Afghanistan(Sony VAIO VGN-SR51MF/W battery).

Marxist revolution and Soviet war

Main articles: Saur Revolution and Soviet war in Afghanistan

Outside the Presidential Palace (Arg) in Kabul, a day after the Marxist revolution in April 1978.

In April 1978, a prominent member of the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA), Mir Akbar Khyber, was mysteriously killed. Leaders of the PDPA feared that the government was planning to dismantle them because many were being arrested(Sony VAIO VGN-SR51B battery). Hafizullah Amin along with other PDPA members managed to remain at large and organised an uprising. The PDPA, led by Nur Mohammad Taraki, Babrak Karmal and Hafizullah Amin, overthrew the regime of Daoud by assassinating the President along with his family and relatives. Taraki quickly took over and moved to carry out an ill-conceived land reform(Sony VAIO VGN-SR51B/S battery), which was misunderstood by virtually all Afghans. The PDPA began imprisoning, torturing and murdering thousands of members of the traditional elite, the religious establishment, and the intelligentsia. On the other hand, they prohibited usury, made statements on women's rights by declaring equality of the sexes and introducing women to political life(Sony VAIO VGN-SR51B/P battery). Anahita Ratebzad was one of several female Marxist leaders and a member of the Revolutionary Council.

Soviet troops (in right row) withdrawing from Afghanistan in 1988. Afghan military BTR on the left.

As part of its Cold War strategy, the United States strengthened political ties with Pakistan although Zbigniew Brzezinski, National Security Advisor to U.S. President Jimmy Carter, has warned that this might prompt a Soviet intervention(Sony VAIO VGN-SR49VN/H battery). The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) began using Pakistan's Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) as a proxy network to recruit, finance and arm the multi-national Mujahideen fighters inside Pakistan, which was aimed to prevent the Soviet Union from reaching the oil-rich Persian Gulf through Balochistan. In March 1979, Hafizullah Amin took over as Prime Minister of Afghanistan(Sony VAIO VGN-SR49D battery), retaining the position of field marshal and becoming Vice-President of the Supreme Defence Council. Taraki remained the president and in control of the army until he was killed in September 1979.

To bolster the Parcham faction and as part of its Cold War strategy to ultimately reach Gwadar in Balochistan, the Soviet Union decided to invade Afghanistan in December 1979 by sending 100,000 soldiers of the Red Army to its southern neighbor(Sony VAIO VGN-SR49D/Q battery). In the meantime, Hafizullah Amin was killed and replaced by Babrak Karmal. In response to all these, the Reagan administration in the U.S. increased arming and funding of the Mujahideen, thanks in large part to the efforts of Charlie Wilson and CIA officer Gust Avrakotos. Early reports estimated $6–20 billion but more recent reports suggest that up to $40 billion were provided by the U.S. and Saudi Arabia to Pakistan(Sony VAIO VGN-SR49D/J battery). This was in the forms of cash and weapons, which included over two thousand FIM-92 Stinger surface-to-air missiles. The money and weapons were directly given to Pakistani Armed Forces, which was distributed by its ISI network to various Mujahideen groups although much of it was secretly kept for Pakistan's own defense and other purposes(Sony VAIO VGN-SR48J battery). Despite receiving only minor aid compared to leaders of other Mujahideen groups, Ahmad Shah Massoud was named the "Afghan who won the cold war" by the Wall Street Journal.

The 10-year Soviet war resulted in the killings of over 1 million Afghans, mostly civilians. About 6 million fled to Pakistan and Iran, and from there tens of thousands began immigrating to the European Union, United States, Australia and other parts of the world(Sony VAIO VGN-SR48J/J battery). Faced with mounting international pressure and great number of casualties on both sides, the Soviets withdrew in 1989 but continued to support Afghan President Mohammad Najibullah until 1992.

Foreign interference and civil war

Main articles: Civil war in Afghanistan (1989-1992) and Civil war in Afghanistan (1992–1996)

Professor Burhanuddin Rabbani, President of the Islamic State of Afghanistan from 1992 to 1996, was assassinated by a Taliban member in September 2011(Sony VAIO VGN-SR48J/B battery).

After the fall of Najibullah's government in 1992, Afghan political parties agreed on a peace and power-sharing agreement (the Peshawar Accords). The accords created the Islamic State of Afghanistan and appointed an interim government for a transitional period, under President Burhanuddin Rabbani. According to Human Rights Watch(Sony VAIO VGN-SR46TD/B battery):

The sovereignty of Afghanistan was vested formally in the Islamic State of Afghanistan, an entity created in April 1992, after the fall of the Soviet-backed Najibullah government. With the exception of Gulbuddin Hekmatyar's Hezb-e Islami, all of the parties were ostensibly unified under this government in April 1992(Sony VAIO VGN-SR46MD/B battery). Hekmatyar's Hezb-e Islami, for its part, refused to recognize the government for most of the period discussed in this report and launched attacks against government forces and Kabul generally. Shells and rockets fell everywhere.

Gulbuddin Hekmatyar received operational, financial and military support from Pakistan. Afghanistan expert Amin Saikal concludes in Modern Afghanistan: A History of Struggle and Survival(Sony VAIO VGN-SR45T/W battery):

Pakistan was keen to gear up for a breakthrough in Central Asia. Islamabad could not possibly expect the new Islamic government leaders to subordinate their own nationalist objectives in order to help Pakistan realize its regional ambitions. Had it not been for the ISI's logistic support and supply of a large number of rockets, Hekmatyar's forces would not have been able to target and destroy half of Kabul(Sony VAIO VGN-SR45T/P battery).

A section of Kabul during the civil war in 1993.

In addition, Saudi Arabia and Iran – as competitors for regional hegemony – supported Afghan militias hostile towards each other. According to Human Rights Watch, Iran was assisting the Shia Hazara Hezb-i Wahdat forces of Abdul Ali Mazari, as Iran was attempting to maximize Wahdat's military power and influence(Sony VAIO VGN-SR45T/B battery). Saudi Arabia supported the Wahhabite Abdul Rasul Sayyaf and his Ittihad-i Islami faction. Conflict between the two militias soon escalated into a full-scale war. A publication by the George Washington University describes:

[O]utside forces saw instability in Afghanistan as an opportunity to press their own security and political agendas(Sony VAIO VGN-SR45H battery).

Due to the sudden initiation of the war, working government departments, police units or a system of justice and accountability for the newly-created Islamic State of Afghanistan did not have time to form. Atrocities were committed by individuals of the different armed factions while Kabul descended into lawlessness and chaos as described in reports by Human Rights Watch and the Afghanistan Justice Project(Sony VAIO VGN-SR45H/P battery). Because of the chaos, some leaders increasingly had only nominal control over their (sub-)commanders. For civilians there was little security from murder, rape and extortion. An estimated 25,000 people died during the most intense period of bombardment by Hekmatyar's Hezb-i Islami and the Junbish-i Milli forces of Abdul Rashid Dostum(Sony VAIO VGN-SR45H/N battery), who had created an alliance with Hekmatyar in 1994. Half a million people fled Afghanistan. Human Rights Watch writes:

Rare ceasefires, usually negotiated by representatives of Ahmad Shah Massoud, Sibghatullah Mojaddedi or Burhanuddin Rabbani [the interim government], or officials from the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), commonly collapsed within days(Sony VAIO VGN-SR45H/B battery).

Southern Afghanistan was under the control of neither foreign-backed militias nor the government in Kabul, but was ruled by local leaders such as Gul Agha Sherzai and their militias. In 1994, the Taliban (a movement originating from Jamiat Ulema-e-Islam-run religious schools for Afghan refugees in Pakistan) also developed in Afghanistan as a politico-religious force, reportedly in opposition to the tyranny of the local governor(Sony VAIO VGN-SR41M/W battery). Mullah Omar started his movement with fewer than 50 armed madrassah students in his hometown of Kandahar. When the Taliban took control of the city in 1994, they forced the surrender of dozens of local Pashtun leaders who had presided over a situation of complete lawlessness and atrocities. In 1994, the Taliban took power in several provinces in southern and central Afghanistan(Sony VAIO VGN-SR41M/S battery).

In late 1994, most of the militia factions (Hezb-i Islami, Junbish-i Milli and Hezb-i Wahdat) which had been fighting in the battle for control of Kabul were defeated militarily by forces of the Islamic State's Secretary of Defense Ahmad Shah Massoud. Bombardment of the capital came to a halt(Sony VAIO VGN-SR41M/P battery). The Islamic State government took steps to restore law and order. Courts started to work again. Massoud tried to initiate a nationwide political process with the goal of national consolidation and democratic elections, also inviting the Taliban to join the process but they refused(Sony VAIO VGN-SR3CW/B battery).

Taliban Emirate and the United Front

Main articles: Civil war in Afghanistan (1996-2001) and Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan

Anti-Taliban leader Ahmad Shah Massoud (right) shaking hands with Abdul Qadir (left), leader of the anti-Taliban Eastern Shura. Massoud was assassinated two days before 11 September 2001, on 9 September 2001, by two Arab suicide bombers posing as journalists and is now recognized as a "National Hero" in Afghanistan. Qadir was assassinated in July 2002 by unknown gunmen(Sony VAIO VGN-SR39XN/S battery).

The Taliban started shelling Kabul in early 1995 but were defeated by forces of the Islamic State government under Ahmad Shah Massoud. (see video) Amnesty International, referring to the Taliban offensive, wrote in a 1995 report:

"This is the first time in several months that Kabul civilians have become the targets of rocket attacks and shelling aimed at residential areas in the city." (Sony VAIO VGN-SR39VN/S battery)

The Taliban's early victories in 1994 were followed by a series of defeats that resulted in heavy losses. Pakistan provided strong support to the Taliban. Many analysts like Amin Saikal describe the Taliban as developing into a proxy force for Pakistan's regional interests which the Taliban decline. On September 26, 1996, as the Taliban with military support by Pakistan and financial support by Saudi Arabia prepared for another major offensive, Massoud ordered a full retreat from Kabul(Sony VAIO VGN-SR39D battery). The Taliban seized Kabul on September 27, 1996, and established the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan. They imposed on the parts of Afghanistan under their control their political and judicial interpretation of Islam issuing edicts forbidding women to work outside the home, attend school, or to leave their homes unless accompanied by a male relative. The Physicians for Human Rights (PHR) analyze(Sony VAIO VGN-SR39D/Q battery):

"To PHR's knowledge, no other regime in the world has methodically and violently forced half of its population into virtual house arrest, prohibiting them on pain of physical punishment."

After the fall of Kabul to the Taliban on September 27, 1996, Ahmad Shah Massoud and Abdul Rashid Dostum, two former archnemesis, created the United Front (Northern Alliance) against the Taliban that were preparing offensives against the remaining areas under the control of Massoud and those under the control of Dostum(Sony VAIO VGN-SR39D/J battery). see video The United Front included beside the dominantly Tajik forces of Massoud and the Uzbek forces of Dostum, Hazara factions and some Pashtun forces under the leadership of commanders such as Abdul Haq, Haji Abdul Qadir, Qari Baba or diplomat Abdul Rahim Ghafoorzai(Sony VAIO VGN-SR38 battery).

According to Human Rights Watch, in late May 1997, some 3,000 captive Taliban soldiers were summarily executed in and around Mazar-i-Sharif by Dostum's Junbish forces and members of the Shia Hazara Hezb-i Wahdat faction. The Taliban defeated Dostum's Junbish forces militarily by seizing Mazar-i-Sharif in 1998. Dostum went into exile(Sony VAIO VGN-SR38/Q battery).

Pakistani journalist Hamid Mir interviewing al-Qaida spiritual leader Osama bin Laden in 1997

According to a 55-page report by the UN, the Taliban, while trying to consolidate control over northern and western Afghanistan, committed systematic massacres against civilians. UN officials stated that there had been "15 massacres" between 1996 and 2001(Sony VAIO VGN-SR38/P battery). They also said, that "[t]hese have been highly systematic and they all lead back to the [Taliban] Ministry of Defense or to Mullah Omar himself." The Taliban especially targeted people of Shia religious or Hazara ethnic background. Upon taking Mazar-i-Sharif in 1998, about 4,000 civilians were executed by the Taliban and many more reported tortured(Sony VAIO VGN-SR38/B battery). The documents also reveal the role of Arab and Pakistani support troops in these killings. Bin Laden's so-called 055 Brigade was responsible for mass-killings of Afghan civilians. The report by the UN quotes eyewitnesses in many villages describing Arab fighters carrying long knives used for slitting throats and skinning people(Sony VAIO VGN-SR37TN/B battery).

Pakistan-backed Taliban religious police beating an Afghan woman because she removed her burqa in public.

Pakistani President Pervez Musharraf – then as Chief of Army Staff – was responsible for sending thousands of Pakistanis to fight alongside the Taliban and bin Laden against the forces of Massoud. In total, there were believed to be 28,000 Pakistani nationals, many either from the Frontier Corps or army, fighting inside Afghanistan(Sony VAIO VGN-SR35T/S battery). An estimated 8,000 Pakistani militants were recruited in madrassas filling the ranks of the estimated 25,000 regular Taliban force. A 1998 document by the U.S. State Department confirms that "20–40 percent of [regular] Taliban soldiers are Pakistani." The document further stated that the parents of those Pakistani nationals "know nothing regarding their child's military involvement with the Taliban until their bodies are brought back to Pakistan(Sony VAIO VGN-SR35T/P battery)."

From 1996 to 2001 the al-Qaeda terrorist network of Osama bin Laden and Ayman al-Zawahiri became a state within Afghanistan. Bin Laden sent Arab recruits to join the fight against the United Front. 3,000 fighters of the regular Taliban army were Arab and Central Asian militants. In total, of roughly 45,000 Pakistani(Sony VAIO VGN-SR35T/B battery), Taliban and al-Qaeda soldiers fighting against the forces of Massoud, only 14,000 were Afghans.

Ahmad Shah Massoud remained the only leader of the United Front in Afghanistan. In the areas under his control Massoud set up democratic institutions and signed the Women's Rights Declaration. Human Rights Watch cites no human rights crimes for the forces under direct control of Massoud for the period from October 1996 until the assassination of Massoud in September 2001(Sony VAIO VGN-SR35M/B battery). As a consequence many civilians fled to the area of Ahmad Shah Massoud. In total, estimates range up to one million people fleeing the Taliban. (see video) National Geographic concluded in its documentary "Inside the Taliban":

"The only thing standing in the way of future Taliban massacres is Ahmad Shah Massoud." (Sony VAIO VGN-SR35G/S battery)

In early 2001 Massoud addressed the European Parliament in Brussels asking the international community to provide humanitarian help to the people of Afghanistan. He stated that the Taliban and al-Qaeda had introduced "a very wrong perception of Islam" and that without the support of Pakistan and bin Laden the Taliban would not be able to sustain their military campaign for up to a year(Sony VAIO VGN-SR35G/P battery). On this visit to Europe he also warned that his intelligence had gathered information about a large-scale attack on U.S. soil being imminent.

Recent history (2001–present)

Further information: War in Afghanistan (2001–present), Taliban insurgency, and Civilian casualties of the War in Afghanistan (2001–present)

On 9 September 2001, Ahmad Shah Massoud was assassinated by two Arab suicide attackers inside Afghanistan and two days later about 3,000 people became victims of the September 11, 2001 attacks in the United States(Sony VAIO VGN-SR35G/B battery). Then US President George W. Bush accused Osama bin Laden and Khalid Sheikh Mohammed as the faces behind the attacks. When the Taliban refused to hand over bin Laden to US authorities and to disband al-Qaeda bases in Afghanistan, Operation Enduring Freedom was launched in which teams of American and British special forces worked with commanders of the United Front (Northern Alliance) against the Taliban(Sony VAIO VGN-SR33H battery). At the same time the US-led forces were bombing Taliban and al-Qaida targets everywhere inside Afghanistan with cruise missiles. These actions led to the fall of Mazar-i-Sharif in the north followed by all the other cities, as the Taliban and al-Qaida crossed over the porous Durand Line border into Pakistan. In December 2001, after the Taliban government was toppled and the new Afghan government under Hamid Karzai was formed(Sony VAIO VGN-SR33H/S battery), the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) was established by the UN Security Council to help assist the Karzai administration and provide basic security to the Afghan people.

US Army Chinook helicopters on their way to Bagram Air Base

Soldiers of the Afghan National Army, including the ANA Commando Battalion standing in the front(Sony VAIO VGN-SR33H/P battery).

Five Taliban insurgents detained with 33 suicide vests and 1,000 kg of explosives. In most cases, the insurgents are poor and uneducated people from the Pak-Afghan border areas who are misled by radical mullahs that killing pro-Western Afghans and ISAF members in a suicide bombing will instantly earn them a place in paradise(Sony VAIO VGN-SR33H/B battery).

Clockwise: Admiral and Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, Mike Mullen, standing with other top NATO military officials including David Petraeus, James Mattis, John Allen, Marvin Hill and Wolf Langheld of the German Army.

While the Taliban began regrouping inside Pakistan, more coalition troops entered the escalating US-led war. Meanwhile, the rebuilding of war-torn Afghanistan kicked off in 2002(Sony VAIO VGN-SR31M/S battery). The Afghan nation was able to build democratic structures over the years, and some progress was made in key areas such as governance, economy, health, education, transport, and agriculture. NATO is training the Afghan armed forces as well its national police. ISAF and Afghan troops led many offensives against the Taliban but failed to fully defeat them(Sony VAIO VGN-SR29XN/S battery). By 2009, a Taliban-led shadow government began to form in many parts of the country complete with their own version of mediation court.[138] After U.S. President Barack Obama announced the deployment of another 30,000 soldiers in 2010 for a period of two years, Der Spiegel published images of the US soldiers who killed unarmed Afghan civilians(Sony VAIO VGN-SR29VN/S battery).

At the 2010 International Conference on Afghanistan in London, Afghan President Hamid Karzai said he intends to reach out to the Taliban leadership (including Mullah Omar, Sirajuddin Haqqani and Gulbuddin Hekmatyar). Supported by NATO, Karzai called on the group's leadership to take part in a loya jirga meeting to initiate peace talks. These steps have resulted in an intensification of bombings(Sony VAIO VGN-SR28/Q battery), assassinations and ambushes. Some Afghan groups (including the former intelligence chief Amrullah Saleh and opposition leader Dr. Abdullah Abdullah) believe that Karzai plans to appease the insurgents' senior leadership at the cost of the democratic constitution, the democratic process and progess in the field of human rights especially women's rights. Dr. Abdullah stated(Sony VAIO VGN-SR28/J battery):

"I should say that Taliban are not fighting in order to be accommodated. They are fighting in order to bring the state down. So it's a futile exercise, and it's just misleading. ... There are groups that will fight to the death. Whether we like to talk to them or we don't like to talk to them, they will continue to fight. So, for them, I don't think that we have a way forward with talks or negotiations or contacts or anything as such(Sony VAIO VGN-SR28/B battery). Then we have to be prepared to tackle and deal with them militarily. In terms of the Taliban on the ground, there are lots of possibilities and opportunities that with the help of the people in different parts of the country, we can attract them to the peace process; provided, we create a favorable environment on this side of the line. At the moment, the people are leaving support for the government because of corruption. So that expectation is also not realistic at this stage(Sony VAIO VGN-SR27TN/B battery)."

In FY 2009, the United States resettled just 328 refugees from Afghanistan.[143] By contrast, the U.S. admitted more than 100,000 Vietnamese refugees for resettlement during the Vietnam War. On the other hand, over five million Afghan refugees were repatriated in the last decade, including many who were forcefully deported from NATO countries(Sony VAIO VGN-SR26MN/B battery). This large return of Afghans may have helped the nation's economy but the country still remains one of the poorest in the world due to the decades of war, lack of foreign investment, ongoing government corruption and the Pakistani-backed Taliban insurgency. The United States also accuses neighboring Iran of providing small level of support to the Taliban insurgents. According to a report by the United Nations(Sony VAIO VGN-SR26GN/B battery), the Taliban and other militants were responsible for 76% of civilian casualties in 2009, 75% in 2010 and 80% in 2011.

After the May 2011 death of Osama bin Laden in Pakistan, many prominent Afghan figures began being assassinated, including Mohammed Daud Daud, Ahmad Wali Karzai, Jan Mohammad Khan, Ghulam Haider Hamidi, Burhanuddin Rabbani and others. Also in the same year(Sony VAIO VGN-SR26/S battery), the Pak-Afghan border skirmishes intensified and many large scale attacks by the Pakistani-based Haqqani network took place across Afghanistan. This led to the United States warning Pakistan of a possible military action against the Haqqanis in the Federally Administered Tribal Areas. The U.S. blamed Pakistan's government, mainly Pakistani Army and its ISI spy network as the masterminds behind all of this(Sony VAIO VGN-SR26/P battery).

"In choosing to use violent extremism as an instrument of policy, the government of Pakistan, and most especially the Pakistani army and ISI, jeopardizes not only the prospect of our strategic partnership but Pakistan's opportunity to be a respected nation with legitimate regional influence. They may believe that by using these proxies, they are hedging their bets or redressing what they feel is an imbalance in regional power(Sony VAIO VGN-SR26/B battery). But in reality, they have already lost that bet."

—Admiral Mike Mullen, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff

U.S. Ambassador to Pakistan, Cameron Munter, told Radio Pakistan that "The attack that took place in Kabul a few days ago, that was the work of the Haqqani network. There is evidence linking the Haqqani Network to the Pakistan government. This is something that must stop." Other top U.S. officials such as Hillary Clinton and Leon Panetta made similar statements(Sony VAIO VGN-SR25T/S battery). On October 16, 2011, "Operation Knife Edge" was launched by NATO and Afghan forces against the Haqqani network in south-eastern Afghanistan. Afghan Defense Minister, Abdul Rahim Wardak, explained that the operation will "help eliminate the insurgents before they struck in areas along the troubled frontier".

Governance

Main articles: Politics of Afghanistan, Presidency of Hamid Karzai, and Constitution of Afghanistan(Sony VAIO VGN-SR25T/P battery)

Hamid Karzai standing next to Faisal Ahmad Shinwari and others after winning the 2004 presidential election. The last king of Afghanistan, Zahir Shah is sitting at the right.

National Assembly of Afghanistan

The government of Afghanistan is an Islamic republic consisting of three branches, executive, legislative and judicial(Sony VAIO VGN-SR25S/B battery). The nation is currently led by the Karzai administration with Hamid Karzai as the President and leader since late 2001. The National Assembly is the legislature, a bicameral body having two chambers, the House of the People and the House of Elders.

The Supreme Court is led by Chief Justice Abdul Salam Azimi, a former university professor who had been a legal advisor to the president(Sony VAIO VGN-SR25M/B battery). The current court is seen as more moderate and led by more technocrats than the previous one, which was dominated by fundamentalist religious figures such as Chief Justice Faisal Ahmad Shinwari who issued several controversial rulings, including seeking to place a limit on the rights of women(Sony VAIO VGN-SR25G/S battery).

According to Transparency International's corruption perceptions index 2010 results, Afghanistan was ranked as the third most-corrupt country in the world. A January 2010 report published by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime revealed that bribery consumes an amount equal to 23 percent of the GDP of the nation(Sony VAIO VGN-SR25G/P battery). A number of government ministries are believed to be rife with corruption, and while President Karzai vowed to tackle the problem in late 2009 by stating that "individuals who are involved in corruption will have no place in the government", top government officials were busy stealing and misusing hundreds of millions of dollars through the Kabul Bank(Sony VAIO VGN-SR25G/B battery). Although the nation's institutions are newly formed and steps have been taken to arrest some, the United States warned that aid to Afghanistan would be reduced to very little if the corruption is not stopped.

Elections and parties

Main articles: Elections in Afghanistan and List of political parties in Afghanistan

The 2004 Afghan presidential election was relatively peaceful, in which Hamid Karzai won in the first round with 55.4% of the votes(Sony VAIO VGN-SR240N/B battery). However, the 2009 presidential election was characterized by lack of security, low voter turnout and widespread electoral fraud. The vote, along with elections for 420 provincial council seats, took place in August 2009, but remained unresolved during a lengthy period of vote counting and fraud investigation(Sony VAIO VGN-SR240J/B battery).

Two months later, under international pressure, a second round run-off vote between Karzai and remaining challenger Abdullah was announced, but a few days later Abdullah announced that he is not participating in the November 7 run-off because his demands for changes in the electoral commission had not been met. The next day, officials of the election commission cancelled the run-off and declared Hamid Karzai as President for another 5-year term(Sony VAIO VGN-SR23H/B battery).

In the 2005 parliamentary election, among the elected officials were former mujahideen, Islamic fundamentalists, warlords, communists, reformists, and several Taliban associates.[167] In the same period, Afghanistan reached to the 30th nation in terms of female representation in parliament. The last parliamentary election was held in September 2010, but due to disputes and investigation of fraud(Sony VAIO VGN-SR220J/H battery), the sworn in ceremony took place in late January 2011. After the issuance of computerized ID cards for the first time, which is a $101 million project that the Afghan government plans to start in 2012, it is expected to help prevent major fraud in future elections and improve the security situation(Sony VAIO VGN-SR220J/B battery).

Administrative divisions

Main articles: Provinces of Afghanistan and Districts of Afghanistan

Afghanistan is administratively divided into 34 provinces (wilayats), with each province having its own capital and a provincial administration. The provinces are further divided into about 398 smaller provincial districts, each of which normally covers a city or a number of villages. Each district is represented by a district governor(Sony VAIO VGN-SR21M/S battery).

The provincial governors are appointed by the President of Afghanistan and the district governors are selected by the provincial governors. The provincial governors are representatives of the central government in Kabul and are responsible for all administrative and formal issues within their provinces(Sony VAIO VGN-SR19XN battery). There are also provincial councils which are elected through direct and general elections for a period of four years. The functions of provincial councils are to take part in provincial development planning and to participate in monitoring and appraisal of other provincial governance institutions(Sony VAIO VGN-SR19VN battery).

According to article 140 of the constitution and the presidential decree on electoral law, mayors of cities should be elected through free and direct elections for a four-year term. However, due to huge election costs, mayoral and municipal elections have never been held. Instead, mayors have been appointed by the government. As for the capital city of Kabul, the mayor is appointed by the President of Afghanistan(Sony VAIO VGN-SR190F battery).

The following is a list of all the 34 provinces of Afghanistan in alphabetical order and on the right is a map showing where each province is located:

Foreign relations and military

Main articles: Foreign relations of Afghanistan and Military of Afghanistan

The U.S. Embassy in Kabul. Official diplomatic relations between the United States and Afghanistan began in the early 1920s(Sony VAIO VGN-SR175N/B battery). The United States Department of State has established a consulate in Herat in the west, with plans to open more in Mazar-e-Sharif in the north, Kandahar in the south, and Jalalabad in the east.

The Afghan Ministry of Foreign Affairs is responsible for managing the foreign relations of Afghanistan. The nation has been a member of the UN since 1946, and has maintained good relations with the United States and other NATO member states since the signing of the Treaty of Rawalpindi in 1919(Sony VAIO VGN-SR175NB battery).

The United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan (UNAMA) was established in 2002 under United Nations Security Council Resolution 1401 to help the nation recover from decades of war and establish a normal functioning government. Today, more than 22 NATO nations deploy about 140,000 troops in Afghanistan as part of the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) (SONY Vaio VGN-SR165E/S Battery). Apart from close military links, Afghanistan also enjoys strong economic relations with NATO members and their allies.

Honor guard of the Afghan armed forces during the 2011 commemoration of Afghan Independence Day.

Afghanistan also has diplomatic relations with neighboring Pakistan, Iran, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, the People's Republic of China, including regional states such as India, Turky, Kazakhstan, Russia, United Arab Emirate, Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Egypt, Japan, South Korea, and others(SONY Vaio VGN-SR165E/P Battery). Afghanistan's relationship with Pakistan has often fluctuated since 1947. They have security and economic links with each other but disputes between the two states remain. Afghanistan continues to contest the porous and poorly-marked Durrand Line as its international border with Pakistan,[173] and has repeatedly accused Pakistan of supporting the Taliban insurgents, Haqqani network, and other anti-Afghanistan terrorist groups(SONY Vaio VGN-SR165E/B Battery).

Pakistan harbors concerns over the growing influence of its rival India in Afghanistan. Relations between the two states were strained further after recent border skirmishes and when Afghan officials alleged that Pakistani intelligence agencies are involved in terrorist attacks inside Afghanistan. Despite these problems(SONY Vaio VGN-SR140E/S Battery), Pakistan is a participant in the reconstruction of Afghanistan, pledging $250 million in various projects across the country,[178] and often announces that a stable Afghanistan is in their interest.

India and Iran have actively participated in reconstruction efforts in Afghanistan, with India being the largest regional donor to the country(SONY Vaio VGN-SR13GN/S Battery). Since 2002, India has pledged up to $2 billion in economic assistance to Afghanistan and has participated in multiple socio-economic reconstruction efforts, including power, roads, agricultural and educational projects. There are also military ties between Afghanistan and India, which is expected to increase after the October 2011 strategic pact that was signed by President Karzai and Prime Minister Manmohan Singh(SONY Vaio VGN-SR13GN/P Battery).

The military of Afghanistan is under the Ministry of Defense, which includes the Afghan National Army and the Afghan National Army Air Force. It currently has about 160,000 active soldiers and is expected to reach 260,000 in the coming years. They are trained and equipped by NATO countries, mainly by the United States Department of Defense(SONY Vaio VGN-SR12G/S Battery). The ANA is divided into 7 major Corps, with the 201st Selab ("Flood") in Kabul being the main one. The ANA also has a commando brigade which was established in 2007. The National Military Academy of Afghanistan serves as the main educational institute for the militarymen of the country. A new $200 million Afghan Defense University (ADU) is under construction near the capital(SONY Vaio VGN-SR12G/P Battery).

Crime and law enforcement

Main articles: Crime in Afghanistan and Law enforcement in Afghanistan

Afghan National Police

The National Directorate of Security (NDS) is the nation's domestic intelligence agency, which operates similar to that of the United States Department of Homeland Security (DHS) and has between 15,000 to 30,000 employees. The nation also has about 126,000 national police officers, with plans to recruit more so that the total number can reach 160,000(SONY Vaio VGN-SR12G/B Battery). The Afghan National Police (ANP) is under the Ministry of the Interior, which is based in Kabul and headed by Bismillah Khan Mohammadi. The Afghan National Civil Order Police is the main branch of the Afghan National Police, which is divided into five Brigades and each one commanded by a Brigadier General(SONY Vaio VGN-SR11M Battery). These brigades are stationed in Kabul, Gardez, Kandahar, Herat, and Mazar-i-Sharif. Every province of the country has a provincial Chief of Police who is appointed by the Ministry of Interior and is responsible for law enforcement in all the districts within the province.

The security forces are being trained by NATO countries through the Afghanistan Police Program. According to a 2009 news report(Sony VAIO VGN-FZ38 battery), large percent of the police officers are illiterate and are accused of demanding bribes.[186] Jack Kem, deputy to the commander of NATO Training Mission Afghanistan and Combined Security Transition Command Afghanistan, stated that the literacy rate in the ANP will rise to over 50 percent by January 2012. What began as a voluntary literacy program became mandatory for basic police training in early 2011(Sony VAIO VGN-NW11Z/T battery). Approximately 17 percent of them test positive for illegal drug use. In 2009, President Karzai created two anti-corruption units within the Interior Ministry. Former Interior Minister Hanif Atmar said that security officials from the U.S. (FBI), Britain (Scotland Yard) and the European Union will train prosecutors in the unit(Sony VAIO VGN-NW11S/T battery).

The south and eastern parts of Afghanistan are the most dangerous due to their distances from Kabul and their flourishing drug trade. These areas in particular are often patrolled by Taliban insurgents, and in many cases they plan attacks by using suicide bombers and planting improvised explosive devices (IEDs) on roads(Sony VAIO VGN-NW11Z/S battery). Every year many Afghan police officers are killed in the line of duty. The Afghan Border Police are responsible for protecting the nation's airports and borders, especially the Durand Line, which is a disputed border often used by criminal organizations and terrorists for their illegal activities. Reports in 2011 suggested that up to 3 million people are involved in the illegal drug business in Afghanistan(Sony VAIO VGN-NW11S/S battery), many of the attacks on government employees and institutions are carried out not only by the Taliban militants but also by powerful criminal gangs. Drugs from Afghanistan are exported to Iran, Pakistan, Russia, India, the United Arab Emirate, and the European Union. The Afghan Ministry of Counter Narcotics is dealing with this problem(Sony Vaio VGN-CR23/W Battery).

Economy

Main article: Economy of Afghanistan

Workers processing pomegranates (anaar), which Afghanistan is famous for in Asia.

Afghanistan is an impoverished and least developed country, one of the world's poorest. The nation's GDP stands at about $27 billion with an exchange rate of $15 billion, and the GDP per capita is about $900. Its unemployment rate is 35% and roughly the same percentage of its citizens live below the poverty line(Sony Vaio VGN-CR23/N Battery). About 42 percent of the population live on less than $1 a day, according to a 2009 report. On the positive side, the nation has a very low external debt and is recovering by the assistance of the world community.

The Afghan economy has been growing at about 10% per year in the last decade, which is due to the infusion of over $50 billion dollars in international aid and remittances from Afghan expats(Sony Vaio VGN-CR23/L Battery). It is also due to improvements made to the transportation system and agricultural production, which is the backbone of the nation's economy. The country is known for producing some of the finest pomegranates, grapes, apricots, melons, and several other fresh and dry fruits, including nuts.

The Doost Marble Factory in Herat. Current marble exports are estimated at $15 million per year. With improved extraction, processing(Sony Vaio VGN-CR23/R Battery), infrastructure, and investment, the industry has the potential to grow into a $450 million per year business.

Local market scene in 2007

While the nations's current account deficit is largely financed with the donor money, only a small portion is provided directly to the government budget. The rest is provided to non-budgetary expenditure and donor-designated projects through the United Nations system and non-governmental organizations(Sony Vaio VGN-CR23/P Battery). The Afghan Ministry of Finance is focusing on improved revenue collection and public sector expenditure discipline. For example, government revenues increased 31% to $1.7 billion from March 2010 to March 2011.

Da Afghanistan Bank serves as the central bank of the nation and the "Afghani" (AFN) is the national currency, with an exchange rate of about 47 Afghanis to 1 US dollar. Since 2003, over 16 new banks have opened in the country, including Afghanistan International Bank, Kabul Bank, Azizi Bank, Pashtany Bank, Standard Chartered Bank, First Micro Finance Bank, and others(Sony Vaio VGN-CR23/B Battery).

One of the main drivers for the current economic recovery is the return of over 5 million expatriates, who brought with them fresh energy, entrepreneurship and wealth-creating skills as well as much needed funds to start up businesses. For the first time since the 1970s, Afghans have involved themselves in construction, one of the largest industries in the country(Sony Vaio VGN-CR220E/R Battery). Some of the major national construction projects include the $35 bn New Kabul City next to the capital, the Ghazi Amanullah Khan City near Jalalabad, and the Aino Mena in Kandahar.

In addition, a number of companies and small factories began operating in different parts of the country, which not only provide revenues to the government but also create new jobs(Sony Vaio VGN-CR21Z/R Battery). Improvements to the business-enabling environment have resulted in more than $1.5 billion in telecom investment and created more than 100,000 jobs since 2003. The Afghan rugs are becoming popular again and this gives many carpet dealers around the country to expand their business by hiring more workers(Sony Vaio VGN-CR21Z/N Battery).

Afghanistan is a member of SAARC, ECO and OIC. It is hoping to join SCO soon to develop closer economic ties with neighboring and regional countries in the so-called New Silk Road trade project. Foreign Minister Zalmai Rassoul told the media in 2011 that his nation's "goal is to achieve an Afghan economy whose growth is based on trade, private enterprise and investment"(Sony Vaio VGN-CR21S/W Battery). Experts believe that this will revolutionize the economy of the region. Opium production in Afghanistan has soared to a record in 2007 with about 3 million people reported to be involved in the business but then declined significantly in the years following. The government started programs to help reduce cultivation of poppy, and by 2010 it was reported that 24 out of the 34 provinces were free from poppy grow(Sony Vaio VGN-CR21S/P Battery).

Mining and energy

Main article: Mining in Afghanistan

Michael O'Hanlon of the Brookings Institution explains that if Afghanistan generates about $10 bn per year from its mineral deposits, its gross national product would double and provide long-term funding for Afghan security forces and other critical needs. The United States Geological Survey (USGS) estimated in 2006 that northern Afghanistan has an average 1.6 billion (bn) barrels (bbl) of crude oil(Sony Vaio VGN-CR21S/L Battery), 15.7 trillion cubic feet (440 bn m3) of natural gas, and 562 million bbl of natural gas liquids.[208] Other reports show that the country has huge amounts of lithium, copper, gold, coal, iron ore and other minerals.

Government officials estimate that the country's untapped mineral deposits are worth between $900 bn and $3 trillion. One official asserted that "this will become the backbone of the Afghan economy" and a Pentagon memo stated that Afghanistan could become the "Saudi Arabia of lithium"(Sony Vaio VGN-CR21E/W Battery). Another 2009–2011 USGS study estimated that the Khanashin carbonatite in Helmand Province contained 1,000,000 metric tons (1,100,000 short tons) of rare earth elements.

Transport and communications

Main articles: Transport in Afghanistan and Communications in Afghanistan

Ariana Afghan Airlines.

Afghanistan has about 53 airports, with the biggest ones being the Kabul International Airport, Bagram Air Base, followed by Kandahar International Airport in the south, Herat Airport in the west and Mazar-i-Sharif Airport in the north. Ariana Afghan Airlines is the national carrier(Sony Vaio VGN-CR21E/P Battery), with domestic flights between Kabul, Kandahar, Herat and Mazar-i-Sharif. International flights include to Dubai, Frankfurt, Istanbul, Delhi, Islamabad and a number of other Asian destinations.

There are limited domestic and international flight services available from the locally owned Kam Air, Pamir Airways and Safi Airways. Airlines from a number of regional nations such as Turkish Airlines(Sony Vaio VGN-CR21E/L Battery), Gulf Air, Air Arabia, Air India, PIA and others also provide services to Afghanistan. Flights between Dubai and Kabul take roughly 2 hours to reach.

The country has limited rail service with Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan in the north. The government expects to have the rail line extended to the capital and then to the eastern border town of Torkham by 2014, connecting with Pakistan Railways. Long distant road journeys are made by private Mercedes-Benz coach buses or various types of vans(Sony Vaio VGN-CR21/B Battery), trucks and cars. Newer automobiles have recently become more widely available after the rebuilding of roads and highways. They are imported from the United Arab Emirates through Pakistan and Iran. Afghanistan's postal and package services such as FedEx, DHL and others make deliveries to major cities and towns(Sony Vaio VGN-CR190E/W Battery).

Telecommunication services in the country are provided by Afghan Wireless, Etisalat, Roshan, MTN Group and Afghan Telecom. In 2006, the Afghan Ministry of Communications signed a $64.5 million agreement with ZTE for the establishment of a countrywide optical fiber cable network. As of 2009, the country has 129,300 fixed telephone lines, about 12 million mobile phone subscribers and 1 million internet users(Sony Vaio VGN-CR190E/R Battery).

Health and education

Main articles: Health in Afghanistan and Education in Afghanistan

Inside a regional military hospital in the Paktia Province

Before the Saur Revolution in 1978, the nation had an improving health care system. Ibn Sina Hospital and Ali Abad Hospital in Kabul were two of the leading health care institutions at the time. Health care was limited to urban areas only and was eventually destroyed during the civil war of the 1990s(Sony Vaio VGN-CR190E/P Battery). It is once again improving, which is due to the vaccination of children, training of medical staff and establishment of new hospitals. Many hospitals and clinics have been built over the last decade, with the most advanced treatments being available in Kabul. The French Medical Institute for Children and Indira Gandhi Childrens Hospital in Kabul are the leading children's hospitals in the country(Sony Vaio VGN-CR190E/L Battery). Some of the other main hospitals in Kabul include the 350-bed Jamhuriat Hospital and the Jinnah Hospital, which is still under construction. There are also a number of well-equipped military controlled hospitals in different regions of the country.

According to the Human Development Index, Afghanistan is the 15th least developed country in the world. The average life expectancy is 43.8 years. It is the most dangerous place for a child to be born(Sony Vaio VGN-CR190 Battery), with the highest infant mortality rates in the world. About 1 in 5 children dies before the age of five, and 1 out of every 8 women dies from causes related to pregnancy and childbirth. While these statistics are tragic, progress is being made. It was reported in 2006 that nearly 60% of the population lives within two hours walking distance of the nearest health facility(Sony Vaio VGN-CR150E/B Battery), up from nine percent in 2002. Infant mortality has decreased by 22% and child mortality has dropped by 26% since 2003. The Afghan Ministry of Public Health plans to further cut the infant mortality rate from the current 1,600 to 400 for every 100,000 live births by the year 2020. Demographic and Health Surveys is working with the Indian Institute of Health Management Research to conduct a survey in Afghanistan focusing on Maternal death, among other things(Sony Vaio VGN-CR13T/W Battery). The nation also has one of the highest incidences of people with disabilities, with an estimated one million handicapped people. About 80,000 citizens have lost limbs, mainly as a result of landmines. Non-governmental charities such as Mahboba's Promise assist orphans in association with governmental structures(Sony Vaio VGN-CR13T/R Battery).

American University of Afghanistan (AUAF) in Kabul.

Education in the country includes K-12 and Higher Education, which is supervised by the Ministry of Education and Ministry of Higher Education. The nation's education system was destroyed due to the decades of war, but it began reviving after the Karzai administration came to power in late 2001. About 4,000 schools were built since 2002, with more than 100,000 teachers being trained and recruited(Sony Vaio VGN-CR13T/P Battery). It was reported in 2011 that more than seven million male and female students were enrolled in schools.

As of 2011, about 62,000 students are enrolled in different universities around the country. Kabul University reopened in 2002 to both male and female students. In 2006, the American University of Afghanistan was established in Kabul, with the aim of providing a world-class, English-language(Sony Vaio VGN-CR13T/L Battery), co-educational learning environment in Afghanistan. The capital of Kabul serves as the learning center of Afghanistan, with many of the best educational institutions being based there. Major universities outside of Kabul include Kandahar University in the south, Herat University in the northwest, Balkh University in the north, Nangarhar University and Khost University in the eastern zones, as well as a number of others(Sony Vaio VGN-CR13G/R Battery). The National Military Academy of Afghanistan, modeled after the United States Military Academy at West Point, is a four-year military development institution dedicated to graduating officers for the Afghan armed forces. The $200 million Afghan Defense University is under construction near Qargha in Kabul. The United States is building six faculties of education and five provincial teacher training colleges around the country, two large secondary schools in Kabul and one school in Jalalabad(Sony Vaio VGN-CR13G/P Battery).

Literacy rate of the entire population is very low, possibly at 34% but is improving rapidly. Female literacy may be as low as only 10%. In 2010, the United States began establishing a number of Lincoln learning centers in Afghanistan. They are set up to serve as programming platforms offering English language classes, library facilities, programming venues, Internet connectivity(Sony Vaio VGN-CR13G/W Battery), educational and other counseling services. A goal of the program is to reach at least 4,000 Afghan citizens per month per location. What Afghanistan needs is NATO supported scholarship programs to take massive number of students abroad so that when they return after finishing studies they can move their nation forward and quickly catch up with the rest of the world(Sony Vaio VGN-CR13G/L Battery).

Demographics

Main articles: Demography of Afghanistan and Afghan diaspora

As of 2011, the population of Afghanistan is around 29,835,392 but not known if this includes the Afghan refugees still living in Pakistan and Iran. In 1979, the population was reported to be about 15.5 million. The only city with over a million residents is its capital, Kabul(Sony Vaio VGN-CR13G/B Battery). The other major cities in the country are, in order of population size, Kandahar, Herat, Mazar-i-Sharif, Kunduz, Jalalabad, Lashkar Gah, Taloqan, Puli Khumri, Khost, Ghazni, Sheberghan, Sar-e Pol, and Farah. Urban areas are experiencing rapid population growth following the return of over 5 million expats from Pakistan and Iran. According to the Population Reference Bureau, the Afghan population is estimated to increase to 82 million by 2050(Sony Vaio VGN-CR13G Battery).

Ethnic groups

Main article: Ethnic groups in Afghanistan

Ethnolinguistic groups of Afghanistan

Afghanistan is a multiethnic society. The population of the country is divided into a wide variety of ethnolinguistic groups. Because a systematic census has not been held in the nation in decades, exact figures about the size and composition of the various ethnic groups are unvailable. An approximate distribution of the ethnic groups is shown in the chart below(Sony Vaio VGN-CR13/W Battery):

The 2004–present suggested estimations in the above chart are supported by recent national opinion polls, which were aimed at knowing how a group of 7,760 Afghan citizens felt about the current war, political situation, as well as the economic and social issues affecting their daily lives. Two of the surveys were conducted between 2006 to 2010 by the Asia Foundation (Sony Vaio VGN-CR13/R Battery) (with technical assistance by the Indian Centre for the Study of Developing Societies and the Afghan Center for Socio-economic and Opinion Research) and one between 2004 to 2009 by a combined effort of the broadcasting companies NBC News, BBC, and ARD.

Languages

Main article: Languages of Afghanistan

Pashto and Dari (Persian) are the official languages of Afghanistan, making bilingualism very common(Sony Vaio VGN-CR13/P Battery). Both are Indo-European languages from the Iranian languages sub-family. Persian has always been the prestige language and as the main means of inter-ethnic communication, maintaining its status of lingua franca. Persian is the native tongue of various Afghan ethnic groups including the Tajiks, Hazaras, Aimaks and Kizilbash. Pashto is the native tongue of the Pashtuns, although some Pashtuns often use Persian and many non-Pashtuns are fluent in Pashto(Sony Vaio VGN-CR13/L Battery).

Other languages, such as Uzbek, Arabic, Turkmen, Balochi, Pashayi and Nuristani languages (Ashkunu, Kamkata-viri, Vasi-vari, Tregami and Kalasha-ala), are used as native tongue by minority groups across the country and have official status in the regions where they are widely spoken. Minor languages also include Pamiri (Shughni, Munji, Ishkashimi and Wakhi), Brahui, Hindko, Kyrgyz(Sony Vaio VGN-CR13/B Battery), etc. Many Afghans are also fluent in Urdu, Punjabi, Hindi, English, and other languages.

Religions

Main article: Religion in Afghanistan

Over 99% of the Afghan population is Muslim: approximately 80–85% follow the Sunni sect, 15–19% are Shi'a, and 1% other. Until the 1890s, the region around Nuristan was known as Kafiristan (land of the kafirs) because of its inhabitants: the Nuristanis, an ethnically distinctive people who practiced animism, polytheism and shamanism(Sony Vaio VGN-CR11Z/R Battery). Other than Muslims, there are thousands of Sikhs and Hindus found living in different major cities of the country. There was also a small Jewish community in Afghanistan who emigrated to Israel and the United States by the end of the last century, and only one individual by the name of Zablon Simintov remains today(Sony Vaio VGN-CR11S/W Battery).

Culture

Main article: Culture of Afghanistan

The 2011 Afghan Youth Voices Festival inside the Gardens of Babur in Kabul, which is the capital and a multi-ethnic city.

The Afghan culture has been around for over two millennia, tracing record to at least the time of the Achaemenid Empire in 500 BCE. It is mostly a nomadic and tribal society, with different regions of the country having their own tradition, reflecting the multi-cultural and multi-lingual character of the nation(Sony Vaio VGN-CR11S/P Battery). In the southern and eastern region, as well as western Pakistan which was historically part of Afghanistan, the people live according to the Pashtun culture by following Pashtunwali, which is an ancient way of life that is still preserved. The remaining of the country is culturally Persian and Turkic. Some non-Pashtuns who live in close proximity with Pashtuns have adopted Pashtunwali in a process called Pashtunization (or Afghanization) while some Pashtuns have been Persianized(Sony Vaio VGN-CR11S/L Battery). Millions of Afghans who have been living in Pakistan and Iran over the last 30 years have been influenced by the cultures of those neighboring nations.

Men wearing their traditional Afghan dress in the ultra-conservative southern city of Kandahar.

Afghans display pride in their culture, nation, ancestry, and above all, their religion and independence. Like other highlanders, they are regarded with mingled apprehension and condescension(Sony VGN-CR42E Battery), for their high regard for personal honor, for their tribe loyalty and for their readiness to use force to settle disputes. As tribal warfare and internecine feuding has been one of their chief occupations since time immemorial, this individualistic trait has made it difficult for foreigners to conquer them. Tony Heathcote considers the tribal system to be the best way of organizing large groups of people in a country that is geographically difficult(Sony VGN-CR42S Battery), and in a society that, from a materialistic point of view, has an uncomplicated lifestyle. There are an estimated 60 major Pashtun tribes, and the Afghan nomads are estimated at about 2–3 million.

The nation has a complex history that has survived either in its current cultures or in the form of various languages and monuments. However, many of its historic monuments have been damaged in recent wars(Sony VGN-CR42Z Battery). The two famous Buddhas of Bamiyan were destroyed by the Taliban, who regarded them as idolatrous. Despite that archaeologists are still finding Buddhist relics in different parts of the country, some of them date back to the 2nd century. This indicates that Buddhism was widespread in Afghanistan. Other historical places include the cities of Herat, Kandahar, Ghazni, Mazar-i-Sharif, and Zarang(Sony VGN-CR42ZR Battery). The Minaret of Jam in the Hari River valley is a UNESCO World Heritage site. A cloak reputedly worn by Islam's Prophet Muhammad is kept inside the Shrine of the Cloak in Kandahar, a city founded by Alexander and the first capital of Afghanistan. The citadel of Alexander in the western city of Herat has been renovated in recent years and is a popular attraction for tourists. In the north of the country is the Shrine of Hazrat Ali(Sony VGN-CR41E Battery), believed by many to be the location where Ali was buried. The Afghan Ministry of Information and Culture is renovating 42 historic sites in Ghazni until 2013, when the province will be declared as the capital of Islamic civilization. The National Museum of Afghanistan is located in Kabul(Sony VGN-CR41S Battery).

Although literacy level is low, classic Persian and Pashto poetry play an important role in the Afghan culture. Poetry has always been one of the major educational pillars in the region, to the level that it has integrated itself into culture. Some notable poets include Rumi, Rabi'a Balkhi, Sanai, Jami, Khushal Khan Khattak, Rahman Baba, Khalilullah Khalili, and Parwin Pazhwak(Sony VGN-CR41Z Battery).

Media and entertainment

Main article: Media of Afghanistan

Farhad Darya performing at the Serena Hotel in Kabul.

The Afghan mass media began in the early 20th century, with the first newspaper published in 1906. By the 1920s, Radio Kabul was broadcasting local radio services. Afghanistan National Television was launched in 1974 but was closed in 1996 when the media was tightly controlled by the Taliban(Sony VGN-CR31Z Battery). Since 2002, press restrictions were gradually relaxed and private media diversified. Freedom of expression and the press is promoted in the 2004 constitution and censorship is banned, though defaming individuals or producing material contrary to the principles of Islam is prohibited. In 2008, Reporters Without Borders listed the media environment as 156 out of 173, with the 1st being most free(Sony VGN-CR31E Battery). 400 publications were registered, at least 15 local Afghan television channels and 60 radio stations. Foreign radio stations, such as Voice of America, BBC World Service, and Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty (RFE/RL) broadcast into the country.

The city of Kabul has been home to many musicians in the past, who were masters of both traditional and modern Afghan music, especially during the Nowruz (New Year) and National Independence Day celebrations(Sony VGN-CR31S Battery). Ahmad Zahir, Nashenas, Ustad Sarahang, Sarban, Ubaidullah Jan, Farhad Darya, and Naghma are some of the notable Afghan musicians but there are many others. Most Afghans are accustomed to watching Bollywood films from India and listening to its filmi hit songs. Many of the Bollywood film stars have roots in Afghanistan, including Madhubala, Feroz Khan, Shahrukh Khan, Aamir Khan, Salman Khan(Sony VGN-CR31SR Battery), Naseeruddin Shah, Fardeen Khan, Sohail Khan, Celina Jaitley and many others. In addition, several Bollywood films such as Dharmatma, Khuda Gawah, Escape from Taliban and Kabul Express have been shot inside Afghanistan.

Sports

Main article: Sport in Afghanistan

A football match between members of ISAF and Afghan National Army in 2009.

The Afghanistan national football team has been competing in international football since 1941 and currently has a world ranking of 179(Sony VGN-CR21Z Battery). The national team plays its home games at the Ghazi Stadium in Kabul, while football in Afghanistan is governed by the Afghanistan Football Federation. The national team has never competed or qualified for the World Cup. The country also has a national team in the sport of futsal, a game very similar to football. Some of the other popular sports in Afghanistan include cricket, volleyball, basketball, taekwondo, boxing, wrestling, weightlifting, and bodybuilding(Sony VGN-CR21S Battery).

Cricket, which is a newly introduced sport in Afghanistan fuelled by the success of the Afghan national cricket team is growing in popularity. It has risen from the lower levels of international cricket to qualifying for the 2010 Twenty20 World Cup. More recently the under-19 team has qualified for the 2012 ICC Under-19 Cricket World Cup(Sony VGN-CR21E Battery). The Afghanistan Cricket Board (ACB) is the official governing body of the sport and is headquartered in Kabul. The Ghazi Amanullah Khan International Cricket Stadium serves as the nation's main cricket stadium, followed by the Kabul National Cricket Stadium. Several other stadiums are under construction. Cricket is played between teams from different provinces, mostly by the Pashtuns on both sides of the Durand Line(Sony VGN-CR11E Battery).

Buzkashi is a traditional sport, mainly among the northern Afghans. It is similar to polo, played by horsemen in two teams, each trying to grab and hold a goat carcass. Afghan hounds (a type of running dog) originated in Afghanistan and was originally used in the sport of hunting(Sony VGN-CR11M Battery).