Jesus

Jesus of Nazareth ( /ˈdʒiːzəs/; 7–2 BC/BCE to 30–36 AD/CE), also referred to as Jesus Christ or simply Christ, is the central figure of Christianity, and is also regarded as an important prophet of God in Islam. Most Christian denominations venerate him as God the Son incarnated and believe that he rose from the dead after being crucified. HP Pavilion dv5-1033ez Battery [11][12] The principal sources of information regarding Jesus are the Bible's four canonical gospels,[13] which most biblical scholars find useful for reconstructing Jesus' life and teachings.[14][15][16][17] Scholars have correlated the New Testament accounts with non-Christian historical records to arrive at an estimated chronology for the major episodes in the life of Jesus. HP Pavilion dv5-1033tx Battery [3][5][18][19] Most modern historians agree that Jesus existed and was a Jewish teacher from Galilee in Roman Judaea, who was baptized by John the Baptist, and was crucified in Jerusalem on the orders of the Roman Prefect, HP Pavilion dv5-1034ca Battery Pontius Pilate.[20][21][22][8] Scholars have offered competing descriptions and portraits of Jesus, which at times share a number of overlapping attributes, such as a rabbi, a charismatic healer, the leader of an apocalyptic movement, a self-described Messiah, a sage and philosopher, HP Pavilion dv5-1034el Batteryor a social reformer who preached of the "Kingdom of God" as a means for personal and egalitarian social transformation.[23][24][25][26] Christians traditionally believe that Jesus was born of a virgin, performed miracles, founded the Church, HP Pavilion dv5-1034tx Batterydied sacrificially to achieve atonement, rose from the dead, and ascended into heaven, from which he will return.[12] The majority of Christians worship Jesus as the incarnation of God the Son, and the Second Person of the Holy Trinity.[27] A few Christian groups, however, reject Trinitarianism, wholly or partly, HP Pavilion dv5-1035ec Battery believing it to be non-scriptural.[27][28] Most Christian scholars today present Jesus as the awaited Messiah promised in the Old Testament and as God,[29] arguing that he fulfilled many Messianic prophecies of the Old Testament.[30] Judaism rejects the belief that Jesus was the awaited Messiah, HP Pavilion dv5-1035el Batteryarguing that he did not fulfill the Messianic prophecies in the Tanakh.[31] In Islam, Jesus (in Arabic: عيسى‎ in Islamic usage, commonly transliterated as Isa) is considered one of God's important prophets,[32][33] a bringer of scripture, and the product of a virgin birth, but not the victim of crucifixion.[34] Islam and the Bahá'í Faith use the title "Messiah" for JesusHP Pavilion dv5-1035eo Battery,[35][36] but do not teach that he was God incarnate. Etymology of name "Jesus" is a transliteration, occurring in a number of languages and based on the Latin Iesus, of the Greek Ἰησοῦς (Iēsoûs), HP Pavilion dv5-1035er Battery itself a hellenization of the Hebrew יְהוֹשֻׁעַ (Yĕhōšuă‘, Joshua) or Hebrew-Aramaic יֵשׁוּעַ (Yēšûă‘), both meaning "Yahweh delivers" or "Yahweh rescues". In Arabic, it is عيسى‎.[37][38] The etymology of the name Jesus in the context of the New Testament is generally expressed as "Yahweh saves",HP Pavilion dv5-1035es Battery [39][40][41] "Yahweh is salvation"[42][43] and at times as "Jehovah is salvation".[44] The name Jesus appears to have been in use in Judaea at the time of the birth of Jesus.[44][45] Philo's reference (Mutatione Nominum item 121) indicates that the etymology of Joshua was known outside Judaea at the timeHP Pavilion dv5-1035tx Battery.[46] In the New Testament, in Luke 1:26-33, the angel Gabriel tells Mary to name her child "Jesus", and in Matthew 1:21 an angel tells Joseph to name the child "Jesus". The statement in Matthew 1:21 "you are to give him the name Jesus, because he will save his people from their sins" associates salvific attributes to the name Jesus in Christian theology. HP Pavilion dv5-1036el Battery [47][48] "Christ" ( /ˈkraɪst/) is derived from the Greek Χριστός (Khrīstos), meaning "the anointed" or "the anointed one", a translation of the Hebrew מָשִׁיחַ (Māšîaḥ), usually transliterated into English as "Messiah" ( /mɨˈsaɪ.ə/).[49][50] In the Septuagint version of the Hebrew Bible (written well over a century before the time of Jesus), HP Pavilion dv5-1036ez Battery the word "Christ" (Χριστός) was used to translate the Hebrew word "Messiah" (מָשִׁיחַ) into Greek.[51] In Matthew 16:16, the apostle Peter's profession "You are the Christ" identifies Jesus as the Messiah.[52] In postbiblical usage, "Christ" became viewed as a name, one part of "Jesus Christ", but originally it was a title ("Jesus the Anointed").[53][54][55] ChronologyHP Pavilion dv5-1036tx Battery Main article: Chronology of Jesus Judaea and Galilee at the time of Jesus. Although a few scholars have questioned the existence of Jesus as an actual historical figure, HP Pavilion dv5-1037eo Battery [56] and some early Christian sects denied that Jesus existed as a physical being (see below), most scholars involved with historical Jesus research believe his existence, but that the supernatural claims associated with him cannot be established using documentary and other evidence.[22][57][58][59][60][61] As discussed in the sections immediately below, HP Pavilion dv5-1037tx Battery the estimation of the year of death of Jesus places his lifespan around the beginning of the 1st century AD/CE, in the geographic region of Roman Judaea.[62][63][64][65][66] Roman involvement in Judaea began around 63 BC/BCE and by 6 AD/CE Judaea had become a Roman province. HP Pavilion dv5-1038tx Battery [67] From 26-37 AD/CE Pontius Pilate was the governor of Roman Judaea.[68] In this time period, although Roman Judaea was strategically positioned in the Near East, close to Arabia and North Africa, it was not viewed as a critically important province by the Romans.[69][70] At the time the Romans were highly tolerant of other religions and allowed the local populations such as the Jews to practice their own faiths. HP Pavilion dv5-1039tx Battery [67] Year of birth Further information: Anno Domini, Common Era, and Year zero Two independent approaches have been used to estimate the year of the birth of Jesus, one by analyzing the Nativity accounts in the Gospels of Luke and Matthew along with other historical data, HP Pavilion dv5-1040eb Battery the other by working backwards from the estimation of the start of the ministry of Jesus, as also discussed in the next section.[5][19] In its Nativity account, the Gospel of Matthew associates the birth of Jesus with the reign of Herod the Great, HP Pavilion dv5-1040ec Battery who is generally believed to have died around 4 BC/BCE.[19][71] Matthew 2:1 states that: "Jesus was born in Bethlehem of Judaea in the days of Herod the king" and Luke 1:5 mentions the reign of Herod shortly before the birth of Jesus. HP Pavilion dv5-1040ee Battery [19] Matthew also suggests that Jesus may have been as much as two years old at the time of the visit of the Magi and hence even older at the time of Herod's death.[72] But the author of Luke also describes the birth as taking place during the first census of the Roman provinces of Syria and Iudaea, HP Pavilion dv5-1040eg Batterywhich is generally believed to have occurred in 6 AD/CE.[73] Most scholars generally assume a date of birth between 6 and 4 BC/BCE.[74] Other scholars assume that Jesus was born sometime between 7–2 BC/BCE.[75] The year of birth of Jesus has also been estimated in a manner that is independent of the Nativity accounts, HP Pavilion dv5-1040eh Battery by using information in the Gospel of John to work backwards from the statement in Luke 3:23 that Jesus was "about 30 years of age" at the start of his ministry.[3][5] As discussed in the section below, by combining information from John 2:13 and John 2:20 with the writings of Flavius Josephus, it has been estimated that around 27-29 AD/CE, HP Pavilion dv5-1040ei BatteryJesus was "about thirty years of age".[76][77] Some scholars thus estimate the year 28 AD/CE to be roughly the 32nd birthday of Jesus and the birth year of Jesus to be around 6-4 BC/BCE.[3][5][78] However, the common Gregorian calendar method for numbering years, in which the current year is 2012HP Pavilion dv5-1040el Battery, is based on the decision of a monk Dionysius in the sixth century, to count the years from a point of reference (namely, Jesus’ birth) which he placed sometime between 2 BC and 1 AD.[79] Although Christian feasts related to the Nativity have had specific dates (e.g. December 25 for Christmas) there is no historical evidence for the exact day or month of the birth of Jesus. HP Pavilion dv5-1040en Battery [80][81][82] Years of ministry Israel Museum model of Herod's Temple, referred to in John 2:13. There have been different approaches to estimating the date of the start of the ministry of JesusHP Pavilion dv5-1040eo Battery.[3][76][77][83] One approach, based on combining information from the Gospel of Luke with historical data about Emperor Tiberius yields a date around 28-29 AD/CE, while a second independent approach based on statements in the Gospel of John along with historical information from Josephus about the Temple in Jerusalem leads to a date around 27-29 AD/CE. HP Pavilion dv5-1040ep Battery [5][76][77][84][85][86] A third method uses the date of the death of John the Baptist and the marriage of Herod Antipas to Herodias based on the writings of Josephus, and correlates it to Matthew 14:4HP Pavilion dv5-1040er Battery.[87][88][89] The estimation of the date based on the Gospel of Luke relies on the statement in Luke 3:1 that the ministry of John the Baptist which preceded that of Jesus began "in the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberius Caesar".[76] Given that Tiberius began his reign in 14 AD/CE, this yields a date about 28-29 AD/CEHP Pavilion dv5-1040es Battery.[3][76][78][90][91] The estimation of the date based on the Gospel of John uses the statements in John 2:13 that Jesus went to the Temple in Jerusalem around the start of his ministry and in John 2:20 that "Forty and six years was this temple in building" at that time. HP Pavilion dv5-1040et Battery [5][76] According to Josephus (Ant 15.380) the temple reconstruction was started by Herod the Great in the 15th-18th year of his reign at about the time that Augustus arrived in Syria (Ant 15.354).[3][76][92][93] Temple expansion and reconstruction was ongoing, and it was in constant reconstruction until it was destroyed in 70 AD/CE by the Romans. HP Pavilion dv5-1040ev Battery [94] Given that it took 46 years of construction, the Temple visit in the Gospel of John has been estimated at around 27-29 AD/CE.[5][76][84][85][86][95] Although both the gospels and Josephus refer to Herod Antipas killing John the Baptist, they differ on the details, e.g. HP Pavilion dv5-1040ew Battery whether this act was a consequence of the marriage of Herod Antipas and Herodias, as indicated in Matthew 14:4, or a pre-emptive measure by Herod which possibly took place before the marriage, as Josephus suggests in Ant 18.5.2.[96][97][98][99] The exact year of the marriage of Herod Antipas and Herodias is subject to debate among scholars.[88] In his analysis of Herod's life, HP Pavilion dv5-1040ez BatteryHarold Hoehner estimates that John the Baptist's imprisonment probably occurred around AD 30-31.[100] The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia estimates the death of the Baptist to have occurred about AD 31-32.[89] The death of John the Baptist relates to the end of the major Galilean ministry of Jesus, just before the half way point in the gospel narratives, HP Pavilion dv5-1040tx Battery before the start of Jesus' final journey to Jerusalem through Judea.[101][102][102][103] Luke 3:23 states that at the start of his ministry Jesus was "about 30 years of age", but the other gospels do not mention a specific age. However, in John 8:57 the Jews exclaimed to Jesus: "Thou art not yet fifty years old, HP Pavilion dv5-1041et Batteryand hast thou seen Abraham?" suggesting that he was much less than 50 years old during his ministry.[5] The length of the ministry is subject to debate, based on the fact that the synoptic gospels mention only one passover during Jesus' ministry, often interpreted as implying that the ministry lasted approximately one year, HP Pavilion dv5-1041tx Battery whereas the Gospel of John records multiple passovers, implying that his ministry may have lasted at least three years.[3][5][104][105] Year of death A 1466 copy of Antiquities of the Jews. HP Pavilion dv5-1042ez Battery A number of approaches have been used to estimate the year of the death of Jesus, including information from the canonical gospels, the chronology of the life of Paul the Apostle in the New Testament correlated with historical events, as well as different astronomical models, as discussed below. HP Pavilion dv5-1042tx Battery All four canonical gospels report that Jesus was crucified at Calvary during the prefecture of Pontius Pilate, the Roman prefect who governed Judaea from 26 to 36 AD/CE. The late 1st century Jewish historian JosephusHP Pavilion dv5-1043tx Battery,[62] writing in Antiquities of the Jews (c. 93 AD/CE), and the early 2nd century Roman historian Tacitus,[63] writing in The Annals (c. 116 AD/CE), also state that Pilate ordered the execution of Jesus, though both writers use the title "procurator" instead of "prefect".[64] The estimation of the date of the conversion of Paul places the death of Jesus before this conversion, HP Pavilion dv5-1044ca Battery which is estimated at around 33-36 AD/CE.[4][106][107] (Also see the estimation of the start of Jesus' ministry as a few years before this date above). The estimation of the year of Paul's conversion relies on a series of calculations working backwards from the well established date of his trial before Gallio in Achaea Greece (Acts 18:12) around 51-52 AD/CE, HP Pavilion dv5-1044tx Battery the meeting of Priscilla and Aquila which were expelled from Rome about 49 AD/CE and the 14-year period before returning to Jerusalem in Galatians 2:1.[4][106][107] The remaining period is generally accounted for by Paul's missions (at times with Barnabas) such as those in Acts 11:25 and 2 Corinthians 11:23, resulting in the 33-36 AD/CE estimateHP Pavilion dv5-1045er Battery.[4][106][107] For centuries, astronomers and scientists have used diverse computational methods to estimate the date of crucifixion, Isaac Newton being one of the first cases.[65] Newton's method relied on the relative visibility of the crescent of the new moon and he suggested the date as Friday, HP Pavilion dv5-1045es Battery April 23, 34 AD/CE.[108] In 1990 astronomer Bradley E. Schaefer computed the date as Friday, April 3, 33 AD/CE.[109] In 1991, John Pratt stated that Newton's method was sound, but included a minor error at the end. Pratt suggested the year 33 AD/CE as the answer.[65] Using the completely different approach of a lunar eclipse model, HP Pavilion dv5-1045tx Battery Humphreys and Waddington arrived at the conclusion that Friday, April 3, 33 AD/CE was the date of the crucifixion.[66][110][111] Life and teachings in the New Testament See also: Life of Jesus in the New Testament, HP Pavilion dv5-1046tx BatteryNew Testament places associated with Jesus, and Historical reliability of the Gospels Although the four canonical gospels, Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John, are the main sources for the biography of Jesus’ life, other parts of the New Testament, such as the Pauline epistles which were likely written decades before them, HP Pavilion dv5-1047tx Battery also include references to key episodes in his life such as the Last Supper, as in 1 Corinthians 11:23-26.[112][113][114] The Acts of the Apostles (10:37-38 and 19:4) refers to the early ministry of Jesus and its anticipation by John the Baptist.[115][116] And Acts 1:1-11 says more about the Ascension episode (also mentioned in 1 Timothy 3:16) than the canonical gospels. HP Pavilion dv5-1048er Battery [117][118] According to the majority viewpoint, the Synoptic Gospels are the primary sources of historical information about Jesus.[6][7][119] and of the religious movement he founded, but not everything contained in the gospels is considered to be historically reliable. HP Pavilion dv5-1048tx Battery [120][121][122][123][124] Elements whose historical authenticity are disputed include the two accounts of the Nativity of Jesus, as well as the resurrection and certain details about the crucifixion.[125][126][127][128][129][130] On one extreme, some Christian scholars maintain that the gospels are inerrant descriptions of the life of Jesus. HP Pavilion dv5-1049tx Battery [131] On the other extreme, some scholars have concluded that the gospels provide no historical information about Jesus' life.[132] Canonical gospel accounts A 3rd century Greek papyrus of LukeHP Pavilion dv5-1050ed Battery. Three of the four canonical gospels, namely Matthew, Mark, and Luke, are known as the Synoptic Gospels, from the Greek σύν (syn "together") and ὄψις (opsis "view"), given that they display a high degree of similarity in content, narrative arrangement, language and paragraph structure. HP Pavilion dv5-1050ee Battery [133][134][135] The presentation in the fourth canonical gospel, i.e. John, differs from these three in that it has more of a thematic nature rather than a narrative format.[136][137] Scholars generally agree that it is impossible to find any direct literary relationship between the synoptic gospels and the Gospel of John. HP Pavilion dv5-1050ei Battery [136] However, in general, the authors of the New Testament showed little interest in an absolute chronology of Jesus or in synchronizing the episodes of his life with the secular history of the ageHP Pavilion dv5-1050ek Battery.[138] The gospels were primarily written as theological documents in the context of early Christianity with the chronological timelines as a secondary consideration.[139] One manifestation of the gospels being theological documents rather than historical chronicles is that they devote about one third of their text to just seven days, namely the last week of the life of Jesus in JerusalemHP Pavilion dv5-1050en Battery.[140] Although the gospels do not provide enough details to satisfy the demands of modern historians regarding exact dates, it is possible to draw from them a general picture of the life story of JesusHP Pavilion dv5-1050eo Battery.[138][139][141] However, as stated in John 21:25 the gospels do not claim to provide an exhaustive list of the events in the life of Jesus.[142] Gospel sources, similarities and differences See also: Gospel harmony and Historical reliability of the GospelsHP Pavilion dv5-1050ep Battery Scholars have debated the sources for the gospels for millennia, and have proposed various hypotheses of how the synoptic gospels were written and how they influenced each other, going back to the Augustinian hypothesis in the 5th century.[143] In the 20th and 21st centuries hypotheses such as the two-source, HP Pavilion dv5-1050er Batteryfour-source, Farrer or the Markan priority hypothesis have been debated.[143][144][145] Each hypothesis assumes a specific order in which the gospels were written, or that other as yet unknown and hypothetical documents such as the Q source or the M source influenced various gospels in various ways. Each hypotheses has had support among some scholars, HP Pavilion dv5-1050es Batterywhile problems with and weaknesses in it have been pointed out by opponents.[143][144][145][146] Since the 2nd century attempts have been made to harmonize the gospel accounts into a single narrative; HP Pavilion dv5-1050ev BatteryTatian's Diatesseron perhaps being the first harmony and other works such as Augustine' book Harmony of the Gospels followed.[147][148] A number of different approaches to gospel harmony have been proposed in the 20th century, HP Pavilion dv5-1050ew Battery but no single and unique harmony can be constructed.[149] While some scholars argue that combining the four gospel stories into one story is tantamount to creating a fifth story different from each original, others see the gospels as blending together to give an overall and comprehensive picture of Jesus' teaching and ministryHP Pavilion dv5-1050tx Battery.[148][150][151][152] Although there are differences in specific temporal sequences, and in the parables and miracles listed in each gospel, the flow of the key events such as Baptism, Transfiguration and Crucifixion and interactions with people such as the Apostles are shared among the gospel narratives. HP Pavilion dv5-1051tx Battery [138][139][153][154] Key elements and the five major milestones The five major milestones in the gospel narrative of the life of Jesus are his Baptism, Transfiguration, Crucifixion, Resurrection and Ascension.[155][156][157] These are usually bracketed by two other episodes: HP Pavilion dv5-1052tx Battery his Nativity at the beginning and the sending of the Holy Spirit at the end.[155][157] The gospel accounts of the teachings of Jesus are often presented in terms of specific categories involving his "works and words", e.g. his ministry, parables and miracles.[158][159] The gospels include a number discourses by Jesus on specific occasions, HP Pavilion dv5-1053tx Battery e.g. the Sermon on the Mount or the Farewell Discourse, and also include over 30 parables, spread throughout the narrative, often with themes that relate to the sermons.[160] Parables represent a major component of the teachings of Jesus in the gospels, forming approximately one third of his recorded teachings, and John 14:10 positions them as the revelations of God the FatherHP Pavilion dv5-1054tx Battery.[161][162] The gospel episodes that include descriptions of the miracle of Jesus also often include teachings, providing an intertwining of his "words and works" in the gospels.[159][163] Genealogy and Nativity The accounts of the genealogy and Nativity of Jesus in the New Testament appear only in the Gospel of Luke and the Gospel of Matthew. HP Pavilion dv5-1055eo BatteryWhile there are documents outside of the New Testament which are more or less contemporary with Jesus and the gospels, many shed no light on the more biographical aspects of his life and these two gospel accounts remain the main sources of information on the genealogy and Nativity. HP Pavilion dv5-1055er Battery [ Genealogy Main article: Genealogy of Jesus Matthew begins his gospel in 1:1 with the genealogy of Jesus, and presents it before the account of the birth of Jesus, HP Pavilion dv4-1000ea Battery while Luke discusses the genealogy in chapter 3, after the Baptism of Jesus in Luke 3:22 when the voice from Heaven addresses Jesus and identifies him as the Son of God.[164] At that point Luke traces Jesus' ancestry through Adam to God.[164] While Luke traces the genealogy upwards towards Adam and God, HP Pavilion dv4-1000et Battery Matthew traces it downwards towards Jesus.[165] Both gospels state that Jesus was begotten not by Joseph, but by God.[166] Both accounts trace Joseph back to King David and from there to Abraham. These lists are identical between Abraham and David (except for one), but they differ almost completely between David and Joseph. HP Pavilion dv4-1001ax Battery [167][168] Matthew gives Jacob as Joseph’s father and Luke says Joseph was the son of Heli. Attempts at explaining the differences between the genealogies have varied in nature, e.g. that Luke traces the genealogy through Mary while Matthew traces it through Joseph; or that Jacob and Heli were both fathers of Joseph, one being the legal father, HP Pavilion dv4-1001tu Battery after the death of Joseph's actual father—but there is no scholarly agreement on a resolution for the differences.[169][170][171] Nativity Main article: Nativity of Jesus The Nativity is a prominent element in the Gospel of Luke, HP Pavilion dv4-1001tx Battery comprises over 10% of the text, and is three times the length of the nativity text in Matthew.[172] Luke's account takes place mostly before the birth of Jesus and centers on Mary, while Matthew's takes place mostly after the birth of Jesus and centers on Joseph. HP Pavilion dv4-1001xx Battery [173][174][175] According to Luke and Matthew, Jesus was born to Joseph and Mary, his betrothed, in Bethlehem. Both support the doctrine of the Virgin Birth in which Jesus was miraculously conceived in his mother's womb by the Holy Spirit, when his mother was still a virgin. HP Pavilion dv4-1002ax Battery Luke is the only gospel to provide an account of the birth of John the Baptist, and uses it to draw parallels between the births of John and Jesus.[180] Luke relates the two births in the visitation of Mary to Elizabeth[172] and further connects the two births by stating that Mary and Elizabeth are cousins. HP Pavilion dv4-1002tu Battery [181] In Luke 1:31-38 Mary learns from the angel Gabriel that she will conceive and bear a child called Jesus through the action of the Holy Spirit. When Mary is due to give birth, she and Joseph travel from Nazareth to Joseph's ancestral home in Bethlehem to register in the census of Quirinius. In Luke 2:1-7. Mary gives birth to Jesus and, having found no place in the inn, HP Pavilion dv4-1002tx Battery places the newborn in a manger. An angel visits the shepherds and sends them to adore the child in Luke 2:22. After presenting Jesus at the Temple, Joseph and Mary return home to Nazareth.[174][182] The nativity account in chapters 1 and 2 of the Gospel of Matthew appears to differ from Luke in implying that Jesus and his family are already living in BethlehemHP Pavilion dv4-1002xx Battery.[183] However, Matthew does not state that Joseph lived in Bethlehem prior to the birth of Jesus.[184] Following his betrothal to Mary, Joseph is troubled in Matthew 1:19-20 because Mary is pregnant, but in the first of Joseph's three dreams an angel assures him not be afraid to take Mary as his wife, because her child was conceived by the Holy Spirit. HP Pavilion dv4-1003ax Battery [185] In Matthew 1:1-12, the Wise Men or Magi bring gifts to the young Jesus after following a star which they believe was a sign that the King of the Jews had been born. King Herod hears of Jesus' birth from the Wise Men and tries to kill him by massacring all the male children in Bethlehem under the age of two (the Massacre of the Innocents).[186] Before the massacre, Joseph is warned by an angel in his dream and the family flees to Egypt and remains there until Herod's death, HP Pavilion dv4-1003tu Battery after which they leave Egypt and settle in Nazareth to avoid living under the authority of Herod's son and successor Archelaus.[185][187] Early life and profession See also: Return of young Jesus to Nazareth In the Gospels of Luke and Matthew, Jesus’ childhood home is identified as the town of Nazareth in Galilee. HP Pavilion dv4-1003tx Battery Joseph, husband of Mary, appears in descriptions of Jesus’ childhood and no mention is made of him thereafter.[188] The New Testament books of Matthew, Mark, and Galatians mention Jesus’ brothers and sisters, but the Greek word adelphos in these verses, has also been translated as brother or kinsman. HP Pavilion dv4-1004ax Battery [189] Luke 2:41–52 includes an incident in the childhood of Jesus, where he was found teaching in the temple by his parents after being lost. The Finding in the Temple is the sole event between Jesus’ infancy and baptism mentioned in any of the canonical gospels. In Mark 6:3 Jesus is called a tekton (τέκτων in Greek), usually understood to mean carpenter. HP Pavilion dv4-1004tu BatteryMatthew 13:55 says he was the son of a tekton.[50]:170 Tekton has been traditionally translated into English as "carpenter", but it is a rather general word (from the same root that leads to "technical" and "technology") that could cover makers of objects in various materials, even builders.[190][191] Beyond the New Testament accounts, HP Pavilion dv4-1004tx Battery the specific association of the profession of Jesus with woodworking is a constant in the traditions of the 1st and 2nd centuries and Justin Martyr (d. ca. 165) wrote that Jesus made yokes and ploughs.[192] Baptism and temptationHP Pavilion dv4-1005tx Battery Main articles: Baptism of Jesus, Temptation of Christ, and John the Baptist Trevisani's depiction of the typical baptismal scene with the sky opening and the Holy Spirit descending as a dove, 1723.[193] In the gospels, HP Pavilion dv4-1006tx Battery the accounts of the Baptism of Jesus are always preceded by information about John the Baptist and his ministry.[153][194][195] In these accounts, John was preaching for penance and repentance for the remission of sins and encouraged the giving of alms to the poor (as in Luke 3:11) as he baptized people in the area of the River Jordan around Perea about the time of the commencement of the ministry of Jesus. HP Pavilion dv4-1007tx Battery The Gospel of John (1:28) specifies "Bethany beyond the Jordan", i.e. Bethabara in Perea, when it initially refers to it and later John 3:23 refers to further baptisms in Ænon "because there was much water there".[196][197] The four gospels are not the only references to John's ministry around the River Jordan. HP Pavilion dv4-1008tx BatteryIn Acts 10:37-38, Peter refers to how the ministry of Jesus followed "the baptism which John preached".[116] In the Antiquities of the Jews (18.5.2) 1st century historian Josephus also wrote about John the Baptist and his eventual death in Perea.[198][199] In the gospels, HP Pavilion dv4-1009tx BatteryJohn had been foretelling (as in Luke 3:16) of the arrival of a someone "mightier than I".[200][201] Apostle Paul also refers to this anticipation by John in Acts 19:4.[115] In Matthew 3:14, upon meeting Jesus, the Baptist states: "I need to be baptized by you." However, Jesus persuades John to baptize him nonetheless.[202] In the baptismal scene, after Jesus emerges from the water, the sky opens and a voice from Heaven states: HP Pavilion dv4-1010tx Battery"This is my beloved Son with whom I am well pleased". The Holy Spirit then descends upon Jesus as a dove in Matthew 3:13-17, Mark 1:9-11, Luke 3:21-23.[200][201][202] In John 1:29-33 rather than a direct narrative, the Baptist bears witness to the episode.[201][203] This is one of two cases in the gospels where a voice from Heaven calls Jesus "Son", HP Pavilion dv4-1011tx Batterythe other being in the Transfiguration of Jesus episode.[204][205] After the baptism, the synoptic gospels proceed to describe the Temptation of Jesus, but John 1:35-37 narrates the first encounter between Jesus and two of his future disciples, who were then disciples of John the Baptist.[206][207] In this narrative, HP Pavilion dv4-1012tx Batterythe next day the Baptist sees Jesus again and calls him the Lamb of God and the "two disciples heard him speak, and they followed Jesus".[208][209][210] One of the disciples is named Andrew, but the other remains unnamed, and Raymond E. Brown raises the question of his being the author of the Gospel of John himself.[203][211] In the Gospel of John, HP Pavilion dv4-1013tx Battery the disciples follow Jesus thereafter, and bring other disciples to him, and Acts 18:24-19:6 portrays the disciples of John as eventually merging with the followers of Jesus.[203][206] The Temptation of Jesus is narrated in the three synoptic gospels after his baptism.[207][212] In these accounts, HP Pavilion dv4-1014nr Battery as in Matthew 4:1-11 and Luke 4:1-13, Jesus goes to the desert for forty days to fast. While there, Satan appears to him and tempts him in various ways, e.g. asking Jesus to show signs that he is the Son of God by turning stone to bread, or offering Jesus worldly rewards in exchange for worship. HP Pavilion dv4-1014tx Battery [207][213] Jesus rejects every temptation and when Satan leaves, angels appear and minister to Jesus.[207][212][213] Ministry Main articles: Ministry of Jesus and Twelve Apostles Luke 3:23 states that Jesus was "about 30 years of age" at the start of his ministry.[3][5] The date of the start of his ministry has been estimated at around 27-29 AD/CE, HP Pavilion dv4-1015tx Batterybased on independent approaches which combine separate gospel accounts with other historical data.[3][5][76][77][84][85][86] The end of his ministry is estimated to be in the range 30-36 AD/CE.[3][4][5][6] The three synoptic gospels refer to just one passover during his ministry, HP Pavilion dv4-1016tx Battery while the Gospel of John refers to three passovers, suggesting a period of about three years.[194][214] However, the synoptic gospels do not require a ministry that lasted only one year, and scholars such as Köstenberger state that the Gospel of John simply provides a more detailed account.[153][194][215] The gospel accounts place the beginning of Jesus' ministry in the countryside of Judaea, HP Pavilion dv4-1017tx Batterynear the River Jordan.[195] Jesus' ministry begins with his Baptism by John the Baptist (Matthew 3, Luke 3), and ends with the Last Supper with his disciples (Matthew 26, Luke 22) in Jerusalem.[194][195] The gospels present John the Baptist's ministry as the precursor to that of Jesus and the Baptism as marking the beginning of Jesus' ministry, after which Jesus travels, HP Pavilion dv4-1018tx Batterypreaches and performs miracles.[153][194][195] A 1923 map of Galilee around 50 AD/CE. Nazareth is towards the center. The Early Galilean ministry begins when Jesus goes back to Galilee from the Judaean desert after rebuffing the temptation of Satan. HP Pavilion dv4-1019tx Battery [216] In this early period Jesus preaches around Galilee and in Matthew 4:18-20 his first disciples encounter him, begin to travel with him and eventually form the core of the early Church.[195][217] This period includes the Sermon on the Mount, one of the major discourses of Jesus. HP Pavilion dv4-1020tx Battery [217][218] The Major Galilean ministry which begins in Matthew 8 refers to activities up to the death of John the Baptist. It includes the Calming the storm and a number of other miracles and parables, as well as the Mission Discourse in which Jesus instructs the twelve apostles who are named in Matthew 10:2-3 to carry no belongings as they travel from city to city and preach. HP Pavilion dv4-1020us Battery [219][220] The Final Galilean ministry includes the Feeding the 5000 and Walking on water episodes, both in Matthew 14.[221][222] The end of this period (as Matthew 16 and Mark 8 end) marks a turning point is the ministry of Jesus with the dual episodes of Confession of Peter and the Transfiguration - which begins his Later Judaean ministry as he starts his final journey to Jerusalem through Judaea. HP Pavilion dv4-1021tx Battery [223][224][225][226] As Jesus travels towards Jerusalem, in the Later Perean ministry, about one third the way down from the Sea of Galilee along the Jordan, he returns to the area where he was baptized, and in John 10:40-42 "many people believed in him beyond the Jordan",HP Pavilion dv4-1022tx Battery saying "all things whatsoever John spake of this man were true".[227][228][229] This period of ministry includes the Discourse on the Church in which Jesus anticipates a future community of followers, and explains the role of his apostles in leading it.[230][231] At the end of this period, the Gospel of John includes the Raising of Lazarus episodeHP Pavilion dv4-1023tx Battery.[232] The Final ministry in Jerusalem is sometimes called the Passion Week and begins with the Jesus' triumphal entry into Jerusalem on Palm Sunday.[232] In that week Jesus drives the money changers from the Temple, and Judas bargains to betray him. This period includes the Olivet Discourse and the Second Coming Prophecy and culminates in the Last Supper, HP Pavilion dv4-1024tx Batteryat the end of which Jesus prepares his disciples for his departure in the Farewell discourse. The accounts of the ministry of Jesus generally end with the Last Supper.[153][232][233] However, some authors also consider the period between the Resurrection and the Ascension part of the ministry of Jesus. HP Pavilion dv4-1025tx Battery [234] Teachings and preachings Main articles: Sermon on the Mount and Parables of Jesus See also: Sermon on the Plain, Five Discourses of Matthew, Farewell Discourse, and Olivet DiscourseHP Pavilion dv4-1026tx Battery Jesus Christ Pantocrator - ancient mosaic from Hagia Sophia. In the New Testament the teachings of Jesus are presented in terms of his "words and works".[158][159] The words of Jesus include a number of sermons, as well as parables that appear throughout the narrative of the synoptic gospels (the Gospel of John includes no parables). HP Pavilion dv4-1027tx Battery The works include the miracles and other acts performed during his ministry.[159] Although the canonical gospels are the major source of the teachings of Jesus, the Pauline epistles, which were likely written decades before the gospels, HP Pavilion dv4-1028tx Batteryprovide some of the earliest written accounts of the teachings of Jesus.[112] The New Testament does not present the teachings of Jesus as merely his own preachings, but equates the words of Jesus with divine revelation, with John the Baptist stating in John 3:34: "he whom God hath sent speaketh the words of God" and Jesus stating in John 7:16: "My teaching is not mine, HP Pavilion dv4-1028us Battery but his that sent me" and again re-asserting that in John 14:10: "the words that I say unto you I speak not from myself: but the Father abiding in me doeth his works."[162][235] In Matthew 11:27 Jesus claims divine knowledge, stating: "No one knows the Son except the Father and no one knows the Father except the Son", HP Pavilion dv4-1029tx Batteryasserting the mutual knowledge he has with the Father.[236][237] The gospels include a number of discourses by Jesus on specific occasions, such as the Farewell discourse delivered after the Last Supper, the night before his crucifixionHP Pavilion dv4-1030ee Battery.[238] Although some of the teachings of Jesus are reported as taking place within the formal atmosphere of a synagogue (e.g. in Matthew 4:23) many of the discourses are more like conversations than formal lectures.[239] The Gospel of Matthew has a structured set of sermons, often grouped as the Five Discourses of Matthew, HP Pavilion dv4-1030ei Battery which present many of the key teachings of Jesus.[240][241] Each of the five discourses has some parallel passages in the Gospel of Mark or the Gospel of Luke.[242] The five discourses in Matthew begin with the Sermon on the Mount, which encapsulates many of the moral teaching of Jesus and which is one of the best known and most quoted elements of the New Testament. HP Pavilion dv4-1030ej Battery [218][239] The Sermon on the Mount includes the Beatitudes which describe the character of the people of the Kingdom of God, expressed as "blessings".[243] The Beatitudes focus on love and humility rather than force and exaction and echo the key ideals of Jesus' teachings on spirituality and compassion. HP Pavilion dv4-1030en Battery [244][245][246] The other discourses in Matthew include the Missionary Discourse in Matthew 10 and the Discourse on the Church in Matthew 18, providing instructions to the disciples and laying the foundation of the codes of conduct for the anticipated community of followers.[231][247][248] Parables represent a major component of the teachings of Jesus in the gospels, HP Pavilion dv4-1030tx Battery the approximately thirty parables forming about one third of his recorded teachings.[160][161] The parables may appear within longer sermons, as well as other places within the narrative.[239] Jesus' parables are seemingly simple and memorable stories, often with imagery, and each conveys a teaching which usually relates the physical world to the spiritual world. HP Pavilion dv4-1031tx Battery [249][250] The gospel episodes that include descriptions of the miracle of Jesus also often include teachings, providing an intertwining of his "words and works" in the gospels.[159][163] Many of the miracles in the gospels teach the importance of faith, for instance in Cleansing ten lepers and Daughter of Jairus the beneficiaries are told that they were healed due to their faithHP Pavilion dv4-1032tx Battery.[251][252] Proclamation as Christ and Transfiguration Main articles: Confession of Peter and Transfiguration of Jesus Transfiguration of Jesus depicting him with Elijah, Moses and 3 apostles by Carracci, 1594HP Pavilion dv4-1033tx Battery. At about the middle of each of the three synoptic gospels, two related episodes mark a turning point in the narrative: the Confession of Peter and the Transfiguration of Jesus.[223][224] These episodes begin in Caesarea Philippi just north of the Sea of Galilee at the beginning of the final journey to Jerusalem which ends in the Passion and Resurrection of JesusHP Pavilion dv4-1034tx Battery.[253] These episodes mark the beginnings of the gradual disclosure of the identity of Jesus to his disciples; and his prediction of his own suffering and death.[204][205][223][224][253] Peter's Confession begins as a dialogue between Jesus and his disciples in Matthew 16:13, Mark 8:27 and Luke 9:18. HP Pavilion dv4-1035la BatteryJesus asks his disciples: But who do you say that I am? Simon Peter answers him: You are the Christ, the Son of the living God.[253][254][255] In Matthew 16:17 Jesus blesses Peter for his answer, and states: "flesh and blood hath not revealed it unto thee, but my Father who is in heaven." In blessing Peter, HP Pavilion dv4-1035tx Battery Jesus not only accepts the titles Christ and Son of God which Peter attributes to him, but declares the proclamation a divine revelation by stating that his Father in Heaven had revealed it to Peter.[256] In this assertion, by endorsing both titles as divine revelation, Jesus unequivocally declares himself to be both Christ and the Son of God. HP Pavilion dv4-1036tx Battery [256][257] The account of the Transfiguration of Jesus appears in Matthew 17:1-9, Mark 9:2-8, Luke 9:28-36.[204][205][205][224] Jesus takes Peter and two other apostles with him and goes up to a mountain, which is not named. Once on the mountain, Matthew (17:2) states that Jesus "was transfigured before them; HP Pavilion dv4-1037tx Battery his face shining as the sun, and his garments became white as the light." At that point the prophets Elijah and Moses appear and Jesus begins to talk to them.[204] Luke is specific in describing Jesus in a state of glory, with Luke 9:32 referring to "they saw his glory".[258] A bright cloud appears around them, HP Pavilion dv4-1038tx Batteryand a voice from the cloud states: "This is my beloved Son, with whom I am well pleased; listen to him".[204] The Transfiguration not only supports the identity of Jesus as the Son of God (as in his Baptism), but the statement "listen to him", identifies him as the messenger and mouth-piece of GodHP Pavilion dv4-1039tx Battery.[259] The significance is enhanced by the presence of Elijah and Moses, for it indicates to the apostles that Jesus is the voice of God, and instead of Elijah or Moses, he should be listened to, by virtue of his filial relationship with God.[259] 2 Peter 1:16-18, echoes the same message: at the Transfiguration God assigns to Jesus a special "honor and glory" and it is the turning point at which God exalts Jesus above all other powers in creationHP Pavilion dv4-1040ee Battery.[260] At the end of both episodes, as in some other pericopes in the New Testament such as miracles, Jesus tells his disciples not to repeat to others, what they had seen - the command at times interpreted in the context of the theory of the Messianic Secret.[261] At the end of the Transfiguration episode, HP Pavilion dv4-1040ei Battery Jesus commands the disciples to silence about it "until the Son of man be risen from the dead", relating the Transfiguration to the Resurrection episode.[262][263][264] Final week: betrayal, arrest, trial, and death The description of the last week of the life of Jesus (often called the Passion week) occupies about one third of the narrative in the canonical gospelsHP Pavilion dv4-1040tx Battery.[140] The narrative for that week starts by a description of the final entry into Jerusalem, and ends with his crucifixion.[153][232] The Last Supper has been depicted by many artistic masters.[265] The last week in Jerusalem is the conclusion of the journey which Jesus had started in Galilee through Perea and JudeaHP Pavilion dv4-1041tx Battery.[232] Just before the account of the final entry of Jesus into Jerusalem, the Gospel of John includes the Raising of Lazarus episode, which builds the tension between Jesus and the authorities. At the beginning of the week as Jesus enters Jerusalem, he is greeted by the cheering crowds, adding to that tension. HP Pavilion dv4-1042tx Battery [232] During the week of his "final ministry in Jerusalem", Jesus visits the Temple, and has a conflict with the money changers about their use of the Temple for commercial purposes. This is followed by a debate with the priests and the elder in which his authority is questioned. One of his disciples, HP Pavilion dv4-1043tx BatteryJudas Iscariot, decides to betray Jesus for thirty pieces of silver.[266] Towards the end of the week, Jesus has the Last Supper with his disciples, during which he institutes the Eucharist, and prepares them for his departure in the Farewell Discourse. After the supper, HP Pavilion dv4-1044tx BatteryJesus is betrayed with a kiss while he is in agony in the garden, and is arrested. After his arrest, Jesus is abandoned by most of his disciples, and Peter denies him three times, as Jesus had predicted during the Last Supper.[267][268] Jesus is first questioned by the Sanhedrin, HP Pavilion dv4-1045tx Battery and is then tried by Pontius Pilate, the Roman governor of Judea. During these trials Jesus says very little, and is mostly silent. After the scourging of Jesus, and his mocking as the King of the Jews Pilate orders the crucifixion.[269][270] Thus the final week that begins with his entry into Jerusalem, HP Pavilion dv4-1046tx Battery concludes with his crucifixion and burial on that Friday, as described in the next 5 sub-sections. The New Testament accounts then describe the resurrection of Jesus three days later, on the Sunday following his death. Final entry into Jerusalem Main articles: Triumphal entry into JerusalemHP Pavilion dv4-1047tx Battery, Cleansing of the Temple, and Bargain of Judas Matthew 21:5 relates Jesus' entry to Zechariah (9:9): "the King cometh unto thee, meek, and sitting upon an ass." Traditionally, HP Pavilion dv4-1048tx Batteryarrival on a donkey signifies peace, while war-waging kings ride horses.[271][272][273] In the four canonical gospels, Jesus' Triumphal entry into Jerusalem takes place at the beginning of the last week of his life, a few days before the Last Supper, marking the beginning of the Passion narrative. HP Pavilion dv4-1049tx Battery [271][274][275][276][277] While at Bethany Jesus sent two disciples to retrieve a donkey that had been tied up but never ridden and rode it into Jerusalem, with Mark and John stating Sunday, Matthew Monday, and Luke not specifying the day.[271][274][275] As Jesus rode into Jerusalem the people there lay down their cloaks in front of him, and also lay down small branches of trees and sang part of Psalm 118: 25-26.[271][273][274][275] In the three synoptic gospels, HP Pavilion dv4-1050ee Batteryentry into Jerusalem is followed by the Cleansing of the Temple episode, in which Jesus expels the money changers from the Temple, accusing them of turning the Temple to a den of thieves through their commercial activities. This is the only account of Jesus using physical force in any of the gospels.[236][278][279] John 2:13-16 includes a similar narrative much earlier, HP Pavilion dv4-1050el Batteryand scholars debate if these refer to the same episode.[236][278][279] The synoptics include a number of well known parables and sermons such as the Widow's mite and the Second Coming Prophecy during the week that follows.[274][275] In that week, HP Pavilion dv4-1050ep Batterythe synoptics also narrate conflicts between Jesus and the elders of the Jews, in episodes such as the Authority of Jesus Questioned and the Woes of the Pharisees in which Jesus criticizes their hypocrisy.[274][275] Judas Iscariot, one of the twelve apostles approaches the Jewish elders and performs the "Bargain of Judas" in which he accepts to betray Jesus and hand him over to the elders. HP Pavilion dv4-1050er Battery [280][266][281] Matthew specifies the price as thirty silver coins.[266] Last Supper Main article: Last Supper See also: Jesus predicts his betrayal, Denial of Peter, and Last Supper in Christian art In the New Testament, HP Pavilion dv4-1050tx Batterythe Last Supper is the final meal that Jesus shares with his twelve apostles in Jerusalem before his crucifixion. The Last Supper is mentioned in all four canonical gospels, and Paul's First Epistle to the Corinthians (11:23-26), which was likely written before the gospels, also refers to it. Jesus with the Eucharist (detail), HP Pavilion dv4-1051tx Batteryby Juan de Juanes, mid-late 16th century. In all four gospels, during the meal, Jesus predicts that one of his Apostles will betray him.[267] Jesus is described as reiterating, despite each Apostle's assertion that he would not betray JesusHP Pavilion dv4-1051xx Battery, that the betrayer would be one of those who were present. In Matthew 26:23-25 and John 13:26-27 Judas is specifically singled out as the traitor.[113][114][267] In Matthew 26:26-29, Mark 14:22-25, Luke 22:19-20 Jesus takes bread, breaks it and gives it to the disciples, HP Pavilion dv4-1052tx Batterysaying: "This is my body which is given for you". In 1 Corinthians 11:23-26 Apostle Paul provides the theological underpinnings for the use of the Eucharist, stating: "This cup is the new covenant in my blood; do this, whenever you drink it, in remembrance of me."[113][284] Although the Gospel of John does not include a description of the bread and wine ritual during the Last Supper, HP Pavilion dv4-1052xx Battery most scholars agree that John 6:58-59 (the Bread of Life Discourse) has a Eucharistic nature and resonates with the "words of institution" used in the synoptic gospels and the Pauline writings on the Last Supper.[285] In all four gospels Jesus predicts that Peter will deny knowledge of him, stating that Peter will disown him three times before the rooster crows the next morning. HP Pavilion dv4-1053tx Battery The synoptics mention that after the arrest of Jesus Peter denied knowing him three times, but after the third denial, heard the rooster crow and recalled the prediction as Jesus turned to look at him. Peter then began to cry bitterly.[286][287] The Gospel of John provides the only account of Jesus washing his disciples' feet before the meal. HP Pavilion dv4-1053xx Battery [288] John's Gospel also includes a long sermon by Jesus, preparing his disciples (now without Judas) for his departure. Chapters 14-17 of the Gospel of John are known as the Farewell discourse given by Jesus, and are a rich source of Christological content.[238][289] Agony in the Garden, betrayal and arrestHP Pavilion dv4-1054tx Battery Main articles: Agony in the Garden, Kiss of Judas, and Arrest of Jesus See also: Holy Hour In Matthew 26:36-46, Mark 14:32-42, Luke 22:39-46 and John 18:1, immediately after the Last Supper, HP Pavilion dv4-1055tx Battery Jesus takes a walk to pray, Matthew and Mark identifying this place of prayer as Garden of Gethsemane.[290][291] Jesus is accompanied by Peter, John and James the Greater, whom he asks to "remain here and keep watch with me." He moves "a stone's throw away" from them, where he feels overwhelming sadness and says "My Father, HP Pavilion dv4-1070ee Battery if it is possible, let this cup pass me by. Nevertheless, let it be as you, not I, would have it."[291] Only the Gospel of Luke mentions the details of the sweat of blood of Jesus and the visitation of the angel who comforts Jesus as he accepts the will of the Father. Returning to the disciples after prayer, HP Pavilion dv4-1070ef Battery he finds them asleep and in Matthew 26:40 he asks Peter: "So, could you men not keep watch with me for an hour?"[291] While in the Garden, Judas appears, accompanied by a crowd that includes the Jewish priests and elders and people with weapons. HP Pavilion dv4-1070er BatteryJudas gives Jesus a kiss to identify him to the crowd who then arrests Jesus.[291][292] One of Jesus' disciples tries to stop them and uses a sword to cut off the ear of one of the men in the crowd.[291][292] Luke states that Jesus miraculously healed the wound and John and Matthew state that Jesus criticized the violent act, HP Pavilion dv4-1070es Battery insisting that his disciples should not resist his arrest. In Matthew 26:52 Jesus makes the well known statement: all who live by the sword, shall die by the sword.[291][292] Prior to the arrest, in Matthew 26:31 Jesus tells the disciples: "All ye shall be offended in me this night" and in 32 that: "But after I am raised up, HP Pavilion dv4-1080ei Battery I will go before you into Galilee." After his arrest, Jesus' disciples go into hiding.[291] Trials by the Sanhedrin, Herod and Pilate Main articles: Sanhedrin trial of Jesus, Pilate's Court, Jesus at Herod's Court, and Crown of ThornsHP Pavilion dv4-1080eo Battery See also: Jesus, King of the Jews and What is truth? In the narrative of the four canonical gospels after the betrayal and arrest of Jesus, he is taken to the Sanhedrin, HP Pavilion dv4-1080es Batterya Jewish judicial body.[293] Jesus is tried by the Sanhedrin, mocked and beaten and is condemned for making claims of being the Son of God.[292][294][295] He is then taken to Pontius Pilate and the Jewish elders ask Pilate to judge and condemn Jesus—accusing him of claiming to be the King of the Jews.[295] After questioning, with few replies provided by Jesus, Pilate publicly declares that he finds Jesus innocent, HP Pavilion dv4-1090eo Battery but the crowd insists on punishment. Pilate then orders Jesus' crucifixion.[292][294][295][296] Although the gospel accounts vary with respect to various details, they agree on the general character and overall structure of the trials of Jesus.[296] Jesus in the upper right hand corner, his hands bound behind, HP Pavilion dv4-1090es Battery is being tried at the high priest's house and turns to look at Peter, in Rembrandt's 1660 depiction of Peter's Denial.[297] In, Matthew 26:57, Mark 14:53 and Luke 22:54 Jesus was taken to the high priest's house where he was mocked and beaten that night. HP Pavilion dv4-1100ea BatteryThe next day, early in the morning, the chief priests and scribes gathered together and lead Jesus away into their council.[292][294][295][298] In John 18:12-14, however, Jesus is first taken to Annas, the father-in-law of Caiaphas, and then to Caiaphas.[292][294][295] In all four gospel accounts the trial of Jesus is interleaved with the Denial of Peter narrative, HP Pavilion dv4-1101tu Batterywhere Peter who has followed Jesus denies knowing him three times, at which point the rooster crows as predicted by Jesus during the Last Supper.[294][299] In the gospel accounts Jesus speaks very little, mounts no defense and gives very infrequent and indirect answers to the questions of the priests, HP Pavilion dv4-1101tx Battery prompting an officer to slap him. In Matthew 26:62 the lack of response from Jesus prompts the high priest to ask him: "Answerest thou nothing?"[292][294][295][300] Mark 14:55-59 states that the chief priests had arranged false witness against Jesus, but the witnesses did not agree together. In Mark 14:61 the high priest then asked Jesus: "Are you the Christ, the Son of the Blessed? HP Pavilion dv4-1101xx Battery" And Jesus said, "I am" — at which point the high priest tore his own robe in anger and accused Jesus of blasphemy. In Luke 22:70 when asked: "Are you then the Son of God?" Jesus answers: "You say that I am" affirming the title Son of God.[301] At that point the priests say: "What further need have we of witness? HP Pavilion dv4-1102tu Batteryfor we ourselves have heard from his own mouth" and decide to condemn Jesus.[292][294][295] In Matthew 27:3-5 Judas, who has watched the trial from a distance, is distraught by his betrayal of Jesus, and attempts to return the thirty pieces of silver he had received for betraying Jesus. The priests tell him that his guilt is of his own account. HP Pavilion dv4-1102tx BatteryJudas throws the money into the temple, and then leaves and hangs himself.[291][292] Taking Jesus to Pilate's Court, the Jewish elders ask Pontius Pilate to judge and condemn Jesus—accusing him of claiming to be the King of the Jews.[295] In Luke 23:7-15 (the only gospel account of this episode), HP Pavilion dv4-1102xx BatteryPilate realizes that Jesus is a Galilean, and is thus under the jurisdiction of Herod Antipas.[302][303][304][305][306] Pilate sends Jesus to Herod to be tried.[307] However, Jesus says almost nothing in response to Herod's questions, or the continuing accusations of the chief priests and the scribes. Herod and his soldiers mock Jesus, put a gorgeous robe on him, HP Pavilion dv4-1103tu Batteryas the King of the Jews, and sent him back to Pilate.[302] Pilate then calls together the Jewish elders, and says that he has "found no fault in this man."[307] The use of the term king is central in the discussion between Jesus and Pilate. In John 18:36 Jesus states: "My kingdom is not of this world", but does not directly deny being the King of the Jews. HP Pavilion dv4-1103tx Battery [308][309] And when in John 19:12 Pilate seeks to release Jesus, the priests object and say: "Every one that makes himself a king speaks against Caesar . . . We have no king but Caesar."[310] Pilate then writes "Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews" as a sign (abbreviated as INRI in depictions) to be affixed to the cross of Jesus. HP Pavilion dv4-1104tu Battery [311] In Matthew 27:19 Pilate's wife, tormented by a dream, urges Pilate not to have anything to do with Jesus, and Pilate publicly washes his hands of responsibility, yet orders the crucifixion in response to the demands of the crowd. The trial by Pilate is followed by the flagellation episode, the soldiers mock Jesus as the King of Jews by putting a purple robe (that signifies royal status) on him, HP Pavilion dv4-1104tx Batteryplace a Crown of Thorns on his head, and beat and mistreat him in Matthew 27:29-30, Mark 15:17-19 and John 19:2-3.[270] Jesus is then sent to Calvary for crucifixion.[292][294][295] Sanhedrin Trial Pilate's CourtHP Pavilion dv4-1105ef Battery Herod's Court Crown of Thorns Crucifixion and burial Main article: Crucifixion of JesusHP Pavilion dv4-1105em Battery See also: Sayings of Jesus on the cross, Crucifixion eclipse, and Entombment of Christ Pietro Perugino's depiction of the Crucifixion as Stabat Mater, 1482. Jesus' crucifixion is described in all four canonical gospels, and is attested to by other sources of that age (e.g. Josephus and Tacitus), HP Pavilion dv4-1105tu Battery and is regarded as an historical event.[312][313][314] After the trials, Jesus made his way to Calvary (the path is traditionally called via Dolorosa) and the three synoptic gospels indicate that he was assisted by Simon of Cyrene, HP Pavilion dv4-1105tx Battery the Romans compelling him to do so.[315][316] In Luke 23:27-28 Jesus tells the women in multitude of people following him not to cry for him but for themselves and their children.[315] Once at Calvary (Golgotha), Jesus was offered wine mixed with gall to drink — usually offered as a form of painkiller. Matthew's and Mark's gospels state that he refused this. HP Pavilion dv4-1106ee Battery [315][316] The soldiers then crucified Jesus and cast lots for his clothes. Above Jesus' head on the cross was the inscription King of the Jews, and the soldiers and those passing by mocked him about the title. Jesus was crucified between two convicted thieves, one of whom rebuked Jesus, while the other defended himHP Pavilion dv4-1106em Battery.[315][317] Each gospel has its own account of Jesus' last words, comprising the seven last sayings on the cross.[318][319][320] In John 19:26-27 Jesus entrusts his mother to the disciple he loved and in Luke 23:34 he states: "Father, forgive them; for they know not what they do", usually interpreted as his forgiveness of the Roman soldiers and the others involved. HP Pavilion dv4-1106tx Battery [318][321][322][323] In the three synoptic gospels, various supernatural events accompany the crucifixion, including darkness of the sky, an earthquake, and (in Matthew) the resurrection of saints.[316] The tearing of the temple veil, upon the death of Jesus, is referenced in the synoptic.[316] The Roman soldiers did not break Jesus' legs, HP Pavilion dv4-1107tx Batteryas they did to the other two men crucified (breaking the legs hastened the crucifixion process), as Jesus was dead already. One of the soldiers pierced the side of Jesus with a lance and water flowed out.[317] In Mark 13:59, impressed by the events the Roman centurion calls Jesus the Son of God. HP Pavilion dv4-1108tx Battery [315][316][324][325] Following Jesus' death on Friday, Joseph of Arimathea asked the permission of Pilate to remove the body. The body was removed from the cross, was wrapped in a clean cloth and buried in a new rock-hewn tomb, HP Pavilion dv4-1109tx Battery with the assistance of Nicodemus.[315] In Matthew 27:62-66 the Jews go to Pilate the day after the crucifixion and ask for guards for the tomb and also seal the tomb with a stone as well as the guard, to be sure the body remains there.[315][326][327] Resurrection and ascensionHP Pavilion dv4-1110eo Battery Main articles: Resurrection of Jesus, Resurrection appearances of Jesus, and Ascension of Jesus See also: Empty tomb, Great Commission, Second Coming, Resurrection of Jesus in Christian art, and Ascension of Jesus in Christian artHP Pavilion dv4-1110tx Battery Resurrection by Noel Coypel, 1700, using a hovering depiction of Jesus. The New Testament accounts of the resurrection and ascension of Jesus, state that the first day of the week after the crucifixion (typically interpreted as a Sunday), his followers encounter him risen from the dead, HP Pavilion dv4-1111tx Battery after his tomb is discovered to be empty.[117][118][328][329] The resurrected Jesus appears to them that day and a number of times thereafter, delivers sermons and commissions them, before ascending to Heaven. Two of the canonical gospels (Luke and Mark) include a brief mention of the Ascension, HP Pavilion dv4-1112tx Battery but the main references to it are elsewhere in the New Testament.[117][118][329] In the four canonical gospels, when the tomb of Jesus is discovered empty, in Matthew 28:5, Mark 16:5, Luke 24:4 and John 20:12 his resurrection is announced and explained to the followers who arrive there early in the morning by either one or two beings (either men or angels) dressed in bright robes who appear in or near the tomb. HP Pavilion dv4-1113tx Battery [117][118][329] The gospel accounts vary as to who arrived at the tomb first, but they are women and are instructed by the risen Jesus to inform the other disciples. All four accounts include Mary Magdalene and three include Mary the mother of Jesus. The accounts of Mark 16:9, John 20:15 indicate that Jesus appeared to the Magdalene first, and Luke 16:9 states that she was among the Myrrhbearers who informed the disciples about the resurrectionHP Pavilion dv4-1114nr Battery.[117][118][329] In Matthew 28:11-15, to explain the empty tomb, the Jewish elders bribe the soldiers who had guarded the tomb to spread the rumor that Jesus' disciples took his body.[118] After the discovery of the empty tomb, the gospels indicate that Jesus made a series of appearances to the disciples. HP Pavilion dv4-1114tx Battery [117][118] These include the well known Doubting Thomas episode, where Thomas did not believe the resurrection until he was invited to put his finger into the holes made by the wounds in Jesus' hands and side; and the Road to Emmaus appearance where Jesus meets two disciples. The catch of 153 fish appearance includes a miracle at the Sea of Galilee, and thereafter Jesus encourages Peter to serve his followersHP Pavilion dv4-1115ef Battery.[117][118][329] The final post-resurrection appearance in the gospel accounts is when Jesus ascends to Heaven where he remains with God the Father and the Holy Spirit.[117][118] The canonical gospels include only brief mentions of the Ascension of Jesus, Luke 24:51 states that Jesus "was carried up into heaven". HP Pavilion dv4-1115tx BatteryThe ascension account is further elaborated in Acts 1:1-11 and mentioned 1 Timothy 3:16. In Acts 1:1-9, forty days after the resurrection, as the disciples look on, "he was taken up; and a cloud received him out of their sight." 1 Peter 3:22 describes Jesus as being on "the right hand of God, having gone into heaven"HP Pavilion dv4-1116tx Battery.[117][118] The Acts of the Apostles also contain "post-ascension" appearances by Jesus. These include the vision by Stephen just before his death in Acts 7:55,[330] and the road to Damascus episode in which Apostle Paul is converted to Christianity.[331][332] The instruction given to Ananias in Damascus in Acts 9:10-18 to heal Paul is the last reported conversation with Jesus in the Bible until the Book of Revelation was written. HP Pavilion dv4-1117ca Battery [331][332] Angel at empty tomb Matthew 28:5 After Resurrection John 20:15HP Pavilion dv4-1117n Batteryr With the Apostles John 20:24 Ascension Acts 1:9 Title attributionsHP Pavilion dv4-1117tx Battery Main article: Names and titles of Jesus in the New Testament The New Testament attributes a wide range of titles to Jesus by the authors of the gospels, by Jesus himself, a voice from Heaven (often assumed to be God) during the Baptism and Transfiguration, as well as various groups of people such as the disciples, HP Pavilion dv4-1118ca Batteryand even demons throughout the narrative.[270][333] The emphasis on the titles used in each of the four canonical gospels gives a different emphasis to the portrayal of Jesus in that gospel.[150][334][335] First page of a 14th century Gospel of Mark, applying 2 titles to Jesus: "The beginning of the gospel of Jesus Christ, the Son of God"HP Pavilion dv4-1118tx Battery. Two of the key titles used for Jesus in the New Testament are Christ and Son of God.[53][336] The opening words in Mark 1:1 attribute both Christ and Son of God as titles, reaffirming the second title again in Mark 1:11.[337] The Gospel of Matthew also begins in 1:1 with the Christ title and reaffirms it in Matthew 1:16. HP Pavilion dv4-1119tx Battery [337] Beyond the declarations by the Gospel writers, titles are attributed in the narrative. The statement by Peter in Matthew 16:16 ("you are the Christ, the Son of the living God") is a key turning point in the Gospel narrative, where Jesus is proclaimed as both Christ and Son of God by his followers and he accepts both titles. HP Pavilion dv4-1120br Battery [254] The immediate declaration by Jesus that the titles were revealed to Peter by "my Father who is in Heaven" not only endorses both titles as divine revelation but includes a separate assertion of sonship by Jesus within the same statement.[256] In the Gospel of John, HP Pavilion dv4-1120tx BatteryJesus refers to himself as the Son of God far more frequently than in the synoptic gospels.[338] In a number of other episodes Jesus claims sonship by referring to the Father, e.g. in Luke 2:49 when he is found in the temple a young Jesus calls the temple "my Father's house", just as he does later in John 2:16 in the Cleansing of the Temple episode. HP Pavilion dv4-1120us Battery [236] However, scholars still debate if Jesus was making a claim to divinity in these statements.[339][340][341] In John 11:27 Martha tells Jesus "you are the Christ, the Son of God", signifying that both titles were later used (yet considered distinct) in the narrative.[342] While the Gospel of John frequently uses the Son of God title, HP Pavilion dv4-1121br Batterythe Gospel of Luke emphasizes Jesus as a prophet.[343] One of the most frequent titles for Jesus in the New Testament is the Greek word Kyrios (κύριος) which can mean God, Lord or master and is used to refers to him over 700 times.[344][345] In everyday Aramaic, Mari was a very respectful form of polite address, well above "Teacher" and similar to Rabbi. HP Pavilion dv4-1121ca BatteryIn Greek this has at times been translated as Kyrios.[346] The Rabbi title is used in several New Testament episodes to refer to Jesus, but more often in the Gospel of John than elsewhere and does not appear in the Gospel of Luke at all.[347] Although Jesus accepts this title in the narrative, HP Pavilion dv4-1121tx Batteryin Matthew 23:1-8 he rejected the title of Rabbi for his disciples, saying: "But be not ye called Rabbi".[347][348][349] Some New Testament scholars argue that Jesus claimed to be God through his frequent use of "I am" (Ego eimi in Greek and Qui est in Latin). This term is used by Jesus in the Gospel of John on several occasions to refer to himself, seven times with specific titles. HP Pavilion dv4-1122la Battery [350][351] It is used in the Gospel of John both with or without a predicate.[351] The seven uses with a predicate that have resulted in titles for Jesus are: Bread of Life, Light of the World, the Door, the Good Shepherd, the Resurrection of Life, the Way, the Truth and the Life, the Vine.[350] It is also used without a predicate, which is very unusual in Greek and Christologists usually interpret it as God's own self-declaration. HP Pavilion dv4-1122tx Battery [351] In John 8:24 Jesus states: "unless you believe that I am you will die in your sins" and in John 8:59 the crowd attempts to stone Jesus in response to his statement that "Before Abraham was, I am".[351] However, many modern scholars believe that Jesus never made a claim to divinity. HP Pavilion dv4-1123la Battery [352][353] John Hick says that this "is a point of broad agreement among New Testament scholars".[354] The Gospel of John opens by identifying Jesus as the divine Logos in John 1:1-18. The Greek term Logos (λόγος) is often translated as "the Word" in English. HP Pavilion dv4-1123tx Battery [355] The identification of Jesus as the Logos which became Incarnate appears only at the beginning of the Gospel of John and the term Logos is used only in two other Johannine passages: 1 John 1:1 and Revelation 19:13.[356][357][358][359] John's Logos statements build on each other: the statement that the Logos existed "at the beginning" asserts that as Logos Jesus was an eternal being like God; that the Logos was "with God" asserts the distinction of Jesus from God; and Logos "was God" states the unity of Jesus with God. HP Pavilion dv4-1123us Battery [288][357][360][361] Some authors have suggested that other titles applied to Jesus in the New Testament had meanings in the 1st century quite different from those meanings ascribed today, e.g. "messiah" and “Son of David” is found elsewhere in the Hebrew Bible and other Jewish texts to refer to the heir to the throne; HP Pavilion dv4-1124la Battery"son of God" to refer to a righteous person; and "son of man" to signify the third person in the subjective case and a polite way to refer to one's self.[362] Historical views Existence Main articles: Jesus Myth, Historicity of JesusHP Pavilion dv4-1124nr Battery, and Chronology of Jesus See also: Josephus on Jesus and Tacitus on Jesus A 1640 edition of the works of Josephus, a 1st century non-Christian historian who referred to Jesus.[ HP Pavilion dv4-1124tx Battery363][364] The Christian gospels were written primarily as theological documents rather than historical chronicles.[139][140] However, the question of the existence of Jesus as a historical figure should be distinguished from discussions about the historicity of specific episodes in the gospels, HP Pavilion dv4-1125br Batterythe chronology they present, or theological issues regarding his divinity.[365] A number of historical non-Christian documents, such as Jewish and Greco-Roman sources, have been used in historical analyses of the existence of Jesus.[363] Most critical historians agree that Jesus existed and regard events such as his baptism and his crucifixion as historical. HP Pavilion dv4-1125la Battery [21][366][367][368] Robert E. Van Voorst states that the idea of the non-historicity of the existence of Jesus has always been controversial, and has consistently failed to convince scholars of many disciplines, and that classical historians, as well as biblical scholars now regard it as effectively refutedHP Pavilion dv4-1125nr Battery.[22] Walter P. Weaver, among others, states that the denial of Jesus’ existence has never convinced any large number of people, in or out of technical circles.[21][368][369] Separate non-Christian sources used to establish the historical existence of Jesus include the works of 1st century Roman historians Josephus and Tacitus. HP Pavilion dv4-1125tx Battery [363][370] Josephus scholar Louis H. Feldman has stated that "few have doubted the genuineness" of Josephus' reference to Jesus in Antiquities 20, 9, 1 and it is only disputed by a small number of scholars.[364][371][372][373] Bart D. Ehrman states that the existence of Jesus and his crucifixion by the Romans is attested to by a wide range of sources, including Josephus and Tacitus. HP Pavilion dv4-1126la Battery [374] The historical existence of Jesus as a person is a separate issue from any religious discussions about his divinity, or the theological issues relating to his nature as man or God. HP Pavilion dv4-1126tx Battery [375] Leading scientific atheist Richard Dawkins specifically separates the question of the existence of Jesus from the attribution of supernatural powers to him, or the accuracy of the Christian gospels.[376] Dawkins does not deny the existence of Jesus, although he dismisses the reliability of the gospel accountsHP Pavilion dv4-1127la Battery.[376] This position is also held by leading critic G. A. Wells, who used to argue that Jesus never existed, but has since changed his views and no longer rejects it.[377] In antiquity, the existence of Jesus was never denied by those who opposed Christianity. HP Pavilion dv4-1127tx Battery [138] While theological differences existed among early Christians regarding the nature of Jesus (e.g. monophysitism, miaphysitism, Docetism, Nestorianism, etc.) these were debates in Christian theology, not about the historical existence of Jesus.[378][379] Although a very small number of modern scholars argue that Jesus never existed, HP Pavilion dv4-1128tx Batterythat view is a distinct minority and most scholars consider theories that Jesus' existence was a Christian invention as implausible.[365][380][381] Language, race and appearance See also: Aramaic of Jesus, HP Pavilion dv4-1129la BatteryRace and appearance of Jesus, and Cultural and historical background of Jesus Jesus grew up in Galilee and much of his ministry took place there.[382] The languages spoken in Galilee and Judea during the 1st century AD/CE include the Semitic Aramaic and Hebrew languages as well as Greek, HP Pavilion dv4-1129tx Batterywith Aramaic being the predominant language.[383][384] Most scholars agree that during the early part of 1st century AD/CE Aramaic was the mother tongue of virtually all women in Galilee and JudaeHP Pavilion dv4-1130br Battery.[385] Most scholars support the theory that Jesus spoke Aramaic and that he may have also spoken Hebrew and Greek.[383][384][386][387] In a review of the state of modern scholarship, Amy-Jill Levine stated: "Beyond recognizing that 'Jesus was Jewish' rarely does scholarship address what being 'Jewish' means." HP Pavilion dv4-1130tx Battery [388] The representation of the race of Jesus has been influenced by cultural settings.[389][390] A Chinese illustration, Beijing, 1879. The New Testament includes no description of the physical appearance of Jesus before his death and its narrative is generally indifferent to racial appearances and does not refer to the features of the people it discusses. HP Pavilion dv4-1131br Battery [391][392][393] The synoptic gospels include the account of the Transfiguration of Jesus during which he was glorified with "his face shining as the sun" but do not provide details of his everyday appearance.[205][224] The Book of Revelation describes the features of a glorified Jesus in a vision (1:13-16), HP Pavilion dv4-1131tx Batterybut the vision refers to Jesus in heavenly form, after his death.[394][395] Old Testament references about the coming Messiah have been projected forward to form conjectures about the appearance of Jesus on theological, rather than historical grounds; e.g. HP Pavilion dv4-1132tx BatteryIsaiah 53:2 which refers to the coming Messiah as "no beauty that we should desire him" and Psalm 45:2-3 which describes him as "fairer than the children of men", often interpreted as a description of his physical appearance.[396][397][398][399] Despite the lack of direct biblical or historical references, HP Pavilion dv4-1133tx Batteryfrom the 2nd century, various theories about the race of Jesus were advanced, e.g. by Justin Martyr based on arguments on the genealogy of Jesus.[400] These arguments have been subject to debate for centuries among modern scholars.[400] Another suggestion by anti-Christian pagan author Celsus (who was likely aware of the gospel texts, HP Pavilion dv4-1134tx Battery and mocked them) that Jesus' father was a Roman soldier named Pantera drew responses from Origen who considered it a fabricated story, and scholars continue to view it as having no historical basis.[401][402][403][404][405][406] By the Middle Ages a number of documents, generally of unknown origin, HP Pavilion dv4-1135br Battery were circulating with details of the appearance of Jesus, e.g. a forged letter by Publius Lentulus, the Governor of Judea, to the Roman Senate, which according to most scholars dates to around the year 1300 and was composed to compensate for the lack of any physical description of Jesus in the Bible. HP Pavilion dv4-1135ee Battery [392] Other spurious references include the Archko Volume and the letter of Pontius Pilate to Tiberius Caesar, the descriptions in which were most likely composed in the Middle Ages.[407][408][409] By the 19th century theories that Jesus was of Aryan descent, HP Pavilion dv4-1135ei Battery in particular European, were developed and later appealed to those who wanted nothing Jewish about Jesus, e.g. Nazi theologians.[393][410] These theories usually also include the reasoning that Jesus was Aryan because Galilee was an Aryan region, but have not gained scholarly acceptance.[393][411] By the 20th century, HP Pavilion dv4-1135tx Batterytheories had also been proposed that Jesus was of black African descent, e.g. based on the argument that Mary his mother was a descendant of black Jews.[412] By the 21st century the race of Jesus was being addressed on television, e.g. a 2001 BBC program that suggested specific physical characteristics for him.[413][414] In the 21st century, HP Pavilion dv4-1136br Batterythe race of Jesus also had a cultural component in cinematic portrayals, e.g. actor James Caviezel was made-up to look semitic as he portrayed Jesus.[415][416] Depictions Main article: Depictions of Jesus Despite the lack of biblical references or historical records, HP Pavilion dv4-1136tx Batteryfor two millennia a wide range of depictions of Jesus have appeared, often influenced by cultural settings, political circumstances and theological contexts.[389][390][392] As in other Christian art, the earliest depictions date to the late 2nd or early 3rd century, and survivors are primarily found in the Catacombs of Rome. HP Pavilion dv4-1137tx Battery [417] In these early depictions, which use popular rather than elite Greco-Roman styles, Jesus is usually shown as a youthful figure without a beard and with curly hair, often with different features from the other men in the scenes, such as his disciples or the Romans.[391] Healing the paralytic, HP Pavilion dv4-1138tx Batterya very early depiction of Jesus, c. 235 Dura-Europos church. Although some images exist at the synagogue at Dura-Europos, Judaism forbade images, and there is no record of its influence on the depictions of Jesus.[389] Christian depictions of the 3rd and 4th centuries typically focused on New Testament scenes of healings and other miracles. HP Pavilion dv4-1139tx Battery [417] Following the conversion of Constantine in the 4th century, Christian art found many wealthy donors and flourished.[417] In this period Jesus began to have more mature features, and was shown with a beard.[391] A new development at this time was the depiction of Jesus without a narrative context, but just as a figure by himself.[391] By the 5th century depictions of the Passion began to appear, HP Pavilion dv4-1140ek Battery perhaps reflecting a change in the theological focus of the early Church.[417] The 6th century Rabbula Gospels includes some of the earliest surviving images of the crucifixion and resurrection.[417] By the 6th century the bearded depiction of Jesus had become standard in the East, though the West, especially in northern Europe, continued to mix bearded and unbearded depictions for several centuries. HP Pavilion dv4-1140go BatteryThe depiction with a longish face, long straight brown hair parted in the middle, and almond shaped eyes shows consistency from the 6th century to the present. Various legends developed which were believed to authenticate the historical accuracy of the standard depiction, such as the image of Edessa and later the Veil of Veronica.[391] Partly to aid recognition of the scenes, narrative depictions of the Life of Christ focused increasingly on the events celebrated in the major feasts of the church calendar, and the events of the Passion, HP Pavilion dv4-1140tx Battery neglecting the miracles and other events of Jesus's public ministry, except for the raising of Lazarus, where the mummy-like wrapped body was shown standing upright, giving an unmistakable visual signature.[citation needed] A cruciform halo was worn only by Jesus (and the other persons of the Trinity), while plain halos distinguished Mary, the Apostles and other saints, helping the viewer to read increasingly populated scenes. HP Pavilion dv4-1141tx Battery [citation needed] The Byzantine Iconoclasm acted as a barrier to developments in the East, but by the 9th century art was permitted again.[389] The Transfiguration of Jesus was a major theme in the East and every Eastern Orthodox monk who had trained in icon painting had to prove his craft by painting an icon of the Transfiguration.[418] However, while Western depictions aim for proportion, HP Pavilion dv4-1142tx Batteryin the Eastern icons the abolition of perspective and alterations in the size and proportion of an image aim to reaches beyond man's earthly dwellings.[419] The 13th century witnessed a turning point in the portrayal of the powerful Kyrios image of Jesus as a wonder worker in the West, HP Pavilion dv4-1143go Battery as the Franciscans began to emphasize the humility of Jesus both at his birth and his death via the nativity scene as well as the crucifixion.[420][421][422] The Franciscans approached both ends of this spectrum of emotions and as the joys of the Nativity of were added to the agony of crucifixion a whole new range of emotions were ushered in, HP Pavilion dv4-1143tx Battery with wide ranging cultural impact on the image of Jesus for centuries thereafter.[420][422][423][424] The Renaissance brought forth a number of artists who focused on the depictions of Jesus and after GiottoHP Pavilion dv4-1144tx Battery, Fra Angelico and others systematically developed uncluttered images that focused on the depiction of Jesus with an ideal human beauty.[389] Leonardo da Vinci's Last Supper which is considered the first work of High Renaissance art due to its high level of harmony became well known for depicting Jesus surrounded by varying emotions of the individual apostles at the announcement of the betrayal.[425][426] Meanwhile, HP Pavilion dv4-1144us Battery the Protestant Reformation, especially in its first decades, violently objected to almost all public religious images as idolaterous, and vast numbers were destroyed. By the end of the 19th century, new reports of miraculous images of Jesus had appeared and continue to receive significant attention, HP Pavilion dv4-1145br Batterye.g. Secondo Pia's 1898 photograph of the Shroud of Turin, one of the most controversial artifacts in history, which during its May 2010 exposition it was visited by over 2 million people.[427][428][429] Another 20th century depiction of Jesus, namely the Divine Mercy image based on Faustina Kowalska's reported vision has over 100 million followers. HP Pavilion dv4-1145go Battery [430][431] The first cinematic portrayal of Jesus was in the 1897 film La Passion du Christ produced in Paris, which lasted 5 minutes.[432][433] Thereafter cinematic portrayals have continued to show Jesus with a beard in the standard western depiction that resembles traditional images.[434] Analysis of the gospelsHP Pavilion dv4-1145tx Battery Main articles: Higher criticism, Textual criticism, and Historical reliability of the Gospels The historical-critical method (or higher criticism) is used to examine the Bible for clues about the historical Jesus, whereby sayings and events that are more likely to be genuine in the opinion of scholars are used to construct their portraits of Jesus. HP Pavilion dv4-1146tx Battery Standard historical methods are used to discern the authorship of each book, and its likely date of composition.[435] The earliest extant texts which refer to Jesus are Paul's letters (mid-1st century), which affirm Jesus' crucifixion. Keulman and Gregory hold that the Gospel of Thomas, a collection of 114 sayings of Jesus, predates the four orthodox gospels, HP Pavilion dv4-1147cl Batteryand believe it may have been composed around mid-1st century.[436][437] The Markan priority hypothesis. Biblical scholars hold that the works describing Jesus were initially communicated by oral tradition, HP Pavilion dv4-1147tx Batteryand were not committed to writing until several decades after Jesus' crucifixion. After the original oral stories were written down in Greek, they were transcribed, and later translated into other languages. The books of the New Testament had mostly been written by 100 AD/CE, making them, at least the synoptic gospels, historically relevant. HP Pavilion dv4-1148tx Battery [438] The Gospel tradition certainly preserves several fragments of Jesus' teaching.[439] The Markan priority hypothesis holds that the Gospel of Mark was written first c. 70 AD/CE.[440][441][442] Matthew is placed at being sometime after this date and Luke is thought to have been written between 70 and 100 AD/CE. HP Pavilion dv4-1149tx Battery [443][444] According to the Q source hypothesis supported by a majority of modern scholars, the gospels were written not by the four evangelists themselves but derived from other sources.[435] A minority of prominent scholars, such as J. A. T. Robinson, have maintained that the writers of the gospels of Matthew, Mark and John were either apostles and eyewitness to Jesus' ministry and death, HP Pavilion dv4-1150br Batteryor were close to those who had been.[445][446][447][447] Critical scholars consider scriptural accounts more likely when they are attested in multiple texts, plausible in Jesus' historical environment, and potentially embarrassing to the author's Christian community. HP Pavilion dv4-1150eo Battery The "criterion of embarrassment" holds that stories about events with aspects embarrassing to Christians (such as the denial of Jesus by Peter, or the fleeing of Jesus' followers after his arrest) would likely not have been included if those accounts were fictional.[448] Sayings attributed to Jesus are deemed more likely to reflect his character when they are distinctive, vivid, HP Pavilion dv4-1150ep Battery paradoxical, surprising, and contrary to social and religious expectations, such as "Blessed are the poor".[449] Short, memorable parables and aphorisms capable of being transmitted orally are also thought more likely to be authentic. HP Pavilion dv4-1150er Battery [449] Scholars use textual criticism to determine which variants among manuscripts is original and how much they may have changed. Contemporary textual critic Bart D. Ehrman cites numerous places where he maintains that the gospels, and other New Testament books, were apparently altered by Christian scribes. HP Pavilion dv4-1150es Battery [150] Craig Blomberg, F. F. Bruce and Gregory Boyd view the evidence as conclusive that very few alterations were made by Christian scribes, while none of them (three or four in total) were important.[445][446][447] According to Normal Geisler and William Nix, "The New Testament, then, HP Pavilion dv4-1150tx Batteryhas not only survived in more manuscripts than any other book from antiquity, but it has survived in a purer form than any other great book─a form that is 99.5% pure"[447]:p.367 Historical analysis Main articles: Historical Jesus and Quest for the historical Jesus A page from Matthew, from Papyrus 1, c. HP Pavilion dv4-1151tx Battery250. After the Enlightenment, scholars began producing characterizations of the life of Jesus by comparing New Testament accounts with other sources that shed light on the social and political background of his time, and used the historical method to produce their own version of the "life of Jesus" which aimed to fill gaps in gospel accounts, HP Pavilion dv4-1152tx Battery as well as excluding some material scholars deemed historically implausible.[450][451][452][453] By the end of the 19th century hundreds of such accounts existed, and in the early 20th century this resulted in the Quest for the historical Jesus, a term coined by Albert Schweitzer. HP Pavilion dv4-1153tx Battery [450] The historical analysis has relied on Biblical criticism, as well as the political, cultural, and religious crises and movements in late Second Temple Judaism and in Roman Judaea, including differences between Galilee and Judaea, and between different sects such as the Pharisees, HP Pavilion dv4-1154tx Battery Sadducees, Essenes and Zealots,[454][455] In the 1950s the second Quest began and resulted in a number of new models and theories.[450] The third Quest began in the 1990s, and continued into the 21st century, producing a variety of perspectives on the life of Jesus.[450] Scholars generally agree that Jesus was a Jewish Galilean, HP Pavilion dv4-1155se Batterybut not a Roman citizen.[456][457] Christina Kreinecker states that Jesus was simply a peregrinus (i.e. subject) of the Judea Province of the Roman Empire.[458] However, although scholars agree on basic historical facts such as the crucifixion of Jesus, HP Pavilion dv4-1155tx Batterythe various "portraits of Jesus" they construct often differ from each other, and from the image found in the gospels.[25][459] The portraits of Jesus constructed by scholars often share a number of common, and at times overlapping building blocks, HP Pavilion dv4-1156tx Batterysuch as healer, philosopher, sage, apocalyptic preacher, or social reformer.[24][25][26] However, Bart Ehrman and separately Andreas Köstenberger contend that given the scarcity of historical sources, it is generally difficult for any scholar to construct a portrait of Jesus that can be considered historically valid beyond the basic elements of his life.[25][460][461] However, HP Pavilion dv4-1157tx Battery some scholars have suggested caution when reading modern meanings into terms such as rabbi at Jesus' time.[462] At the time of Jesus the title rabbi was merely a general title for "teachers of the Law" and did not involve an official appointment.[463] Martin Hengel states that as a "teacher of Wisdom", HP Pavilion dv4-1158tx BatteryJesus was not a typical representatives of the official establishment of the time.[464] William Herzog states that although Jesus was called a rabbi and a teacher he rejected the title rabbi in the synoptic gospels and did not identify himself with the established notion of rabbi at the time.[348] An attribute used by many scholars to describe Jesus is a healer, HP Pavilion dv4-1159tx Batterya number of the same scholars also stating that he preached the restoration of God's kingdom.[465][466][467] Many scholars also hold that the movement Jesus led (and his eschatology) were apocalyptic, as were the preachings of John the Baptist, but some scholars makes a distinction between John's apocalyptic ministry and Jesus' ethical teachings. HP Pavilion dv4-1160tx Battery [468][469] Another attribute used to describe Jesus are a sage who preached the wisdom of God, offering new interpretations of Old Testament teachings.[25][470] Two other views of Jesus are as a cynic philosopher and a social reformer who renounced material possessions and taught a new form of egalitarianism, HP Pavilion dv4-1161tx Batterysocial justice and equality among men and women as well as the abandonment of social class hierarchies.[25][461][471][472] Some historians argue that Jewish and Roman authorities in Jerusalem were wary of Galilean patriots, and that Jesus' preachings were regarded as troubling, and he was hence executed on political chargesHP Pavilion dv4-1162tx Battery.[15][15][473][474] Historicity of events Modern scholars consider the baptism of Jesus and his crucifixion to be the two historically certain facts about him, James Dunn stating that these "two facts in the life of Jesus command almost universal assent"HP Pavilion dv4-1163tx Battery.[8] Dunn states that these two facts "rank so high on the 'almost impossible to doubt or deny' scale of historical facts" that they are often the starting points for the study of the historical Jesus.[8] Bart Ehrman states that the crucifixion of Jesus on the orders of Pontius Pilate is the most certain element about himHP Pavilion dv4-1164tx Battery.[475] John Dominic Crossan states that the crucifixion of Jesus is as certain as any historical fact can be.[476] Craig Blomberg states that most scholars in the third quest for the historical Jesus consider the crucifixion indisputable.[477] Although scholars agree on the historicity of the crucifixion, they differ on the reason and context for it, HP Pavilion dv4-1165tx Battery e.g. both E.P. Sanders and Paula Fredriksen support the historicity of the crucifixion, but contend that Jesus did not foretell of his own crucifixion, and that his prediction of the crucifixion is a Christian story.[478] Geza Vermes also views the crucifixion a historical event but provides his own explanation and background for it.[478] John P. HP Pavilion dv4-1166ca Battery Meier views the crucifixion of Jesus as historical fact and states that based on the criterion of embarrassment Christians would not have invented the painful death of their leader.[479] Meier states that a number of other criteria, e.g. the criterion of multiple attestation (i.e. confirmation by more than one source), the criterion of coherence (i.e. HP Pavilion dv4-1166tx Batterythat it fits with other historical elements) and the criterion of rejection (i.e. that it is not disputed by ancient sources) help establish the crucifixion of Jesus as a historical event.[480] Role of archaeologHP Pavilion dv4-1167tx Batteryy See also: New Testament places associated with Jesus An Augustus denarius, stating CAESAR AVGVSTVS; and on the reverse: DIVVSIVLIV(S), which the population at large took to mean Son of God[481][482] No documents written by Jesus exist, HP Pavilion dv4-1168tx Battery [483] and no specific archaeological remnants are directly attributed to him. The 21st century has witnessed an increase in scholarly interest in the integrated use of archaeology as an additional research component in arriving at a better understanding of the historical Jesus by illuminating the socio-economic and political background of his age. HP Pavilion dv4-1169tx Battery James Charlesworth states that few modern scholars now want to overlook the archaeological discoveries that clarify the nature of life in Galilee and Judea during the time of Jesus.[487] Jonathan Reed states that chief contribution of archaeology to the study of the historical Jesus is the reconstruction of his social worldHP Pavilion dv4-1180br Battery.[490] An example archaeological item that Reed mentions is the 1961 discovery of the Pilate Stone, which mentions the Roman prefect Pontius Pilate, by whose order Jesus was crucified.[490][491][492] Reed also states that archaeological finding related to coinage can shed light on historical critical analysis. HP Pavilion dv4-1190br Battery As an example, he refers to coins with the ""Divi filius" inscription.[484] Although Roman Emperor Augustus called himself "Divi filius", and not "Dei filius" (Son of God), the line between been god and god-like was at times less than clear to the population at large, and the Roman court seems to have been aware of the necessity of keeping the ambiguity. HP Pavilion dv4-1190ej Battery [481][482] Later, Tiberius who was emperor at the time of Jesus came to be accepted as the son of divus Augustus.[481] Reed discusses this coinage in the context of Mark  12:13-17 (known as Render unto Caesar...) in which Jesus asks his disciples to look at a coin: "Whose portrait is this? And whose inscription?" HP Pavilion dv4-1190el Battery and then advises them to "Render unto Caesar the things which are Caesar's, and unto God the things that are God's." Reed states that "the answer becomes much more subversive when one knows that Roman coinage proclaimed Caesar to be God".HP Pavilion dv4-1198er Battery [484] David Gowler states that an interdisciplinary scholarly study of archeology, textual analysis and historical context can shed light on Jesus and his teachings.[488] An example is the archeological studies at Capernaum. Despite the frequent references to Capernaum in the New Testament, HP Pavilion dv4-1199ea Batterylittle is said about it there.[493] However, recent archeological evidence show that unlike earlier assumptions, Capernaum was poor and small, without even a forum or agora.[488][494] This archaeological discovery thus resonates well with the scholarly view that Jesus advocated reciprocal sharing among the destitute in that area of GalileeHP Pavilion dv4-1199ee Battery.[488] Other archeological findings support the wealth of the ruling priests in Judea at the beginning of the first century.[486][495] First century Jewish religious movements Scholars refer to the religious background of the early 1st century to better reconstruct Jesus' life. Some scholars identify him with one or another group. HP Pavilion dv4-1199ef Battery Pharisees were a powerful force in 1st-century Judaea. Early Christians shared several beliefs of the Pharisees, such as resurrection, retribution in the next world, angels, human freedom, and Divine Providence.[496] After the fall of the Temple, the Pharisaic outlook was established in Rabbinic Judaism. HP Pavilion dv4-1199eo BatterySome scholars speculate that Jesus was himself a Pharisee.[497] In Jesus' day, the two main schools of thought among the Pharisees were the House of Hillel, which had been founded by the eminent Tanna, Hillel the Elder, and the House of Shammai. Jesus' assertion of hypocrisy may have been directed against the stricter members of the House of Shammai, although he also agreed with their teachings on divorceHP Pavilion dv4-1199ep Battery.[Mk 10:1–12][498] Jesus also commented on the House of Hillel's teachings (Babylonian Talmud, Shabbat 31a) concerning the greatest commandment[Mk 12:28–34] and the Golden Rule.[Mt 7:12] Historians do not know whether there were Pharisees in Galilee during Jesus' life, or what they would have been like. HP Pavilion dv4-1199er Battery [499] Sadducees were particularly powerful in Jerusalem. They accepted the written Law only, rejecting the traditional interpretations accepted by the Pharisees, such as belief in retribution in an afterlife, resurrection of the body, angels, and spirits. After Jesus caused a disturbance at the Temple, HP Pavilion dv4-1199es Battery it was to have been the Sadducees who had him arrested and turned over to the Romans for execution. After the fall of Jerusalem, they disappeared from history.[500] Essenes were apocalyptic ascetics, one of the three (or four) major Jewish schools of the time, HP Pavilion dv4-1199et Battery though they were not mentioned in the New Testament.[501] Some scholars theorize that Jesus was an Essene, or close to them. Among these scholars is Pope Benedict XVI, who supposes in his book on Jesus that "it appears that not only John the Baptist, but possibly Jesus and his family as well, were close to the Qumran community." HP Pavilion dv4-1201au Battery [502] Zealots were a revolutionary party opposed to Roman rule, one of those parties that, according to Josephus inspired the fanatical stand in Jerusalem that led to its destruction in the year 70 AD/CE. HP Pavilion dv4-1201tu Battery [503] Luke identifies Simon, a disciple, as a "zealot", which might mean a member of the Zealot party (which would therefore have been already in existence in the lifetime of Jesus) or a zealous person.[503] The notion that Jesus himself was a Zealot does not do justice to the earliest Synoptic material describing himHP Pavilion dv4-1201tx Battery.[504] Mythical view Main article: Christ myth theory See also: Jesus Christ in comparative mythology and Quest for the historical JesusHP Pavilion dv4-1202au Battery The term "Christ myth theory" is an umbrella term that applies to a range of arguments that in one way or another question the authenticity of the existence of Jesus or the essential elements of his life as described in the Christian gospels. HP Pavilion dv4-1202tu Battery [505][506][507][508] One viewpoint is that there was no real historical figure Jesus and that he was invented by Christians. Another viewpoint is that there was a person called Jesus, but much of the teachings and miracles attributed to him were either invented or symbolic references. HP Pavilion dv4-1202tx BatteryYet another view holds that the Jesus portrayed in the gospels is a composite character constructed from multiple people over a period of time.[505][506][507][508] Supporters of the various Christ myth theories point to the lack of any known written references to Jesus during his lifetime and the relative scarcity of non-Christian references to him in the 1st century, and dispute the veracity of the existing accounts about himHP Pavilion dv4-1203au Battery.[509] David Strauss, the 19th century founder of Christ myth theory.[510] Among the variants of the Jesus myth theory, the notion that Jesus never existed has little scholarly support, and although some modern scholars adhere to it, they remain a distinct minority; most scholars involved with historical Jesus research believe that his existence can be established using documentary and other evidence. HP Pavilion dv4-1203tu Battery In the context of historical theories, the hypothesis that Jesus never existed is a rather recent topic, and in antiquity his existence was never doubted, even by those who were critical of Christian teachings.[138] In the early 18th century, friction between the church establishment and some theologians, coupled with the growing emphasis on rationalism, resulted in discord between the English deists and the church, and John Toland, HP Pavilion dv4-1203tx BatteryAnthony Collins and Thomas Woolston planted the seeds of discontent.[510][511] The beginnings of the formal denial of the existence of Jesus can be traced to late 18th-century France, and the works of Constantin-Volney and Charles Dupuis.[512] The more methodical writings of David Friedrich Strauss caused an uproar in Europe in 1835, and Strauss became known as the founder of Christ myth theory, HP Pavilion dv4-1204au Battery his approach having been influenced by the epistemological views of Leibniz and Spinoza.[510][513] Strauss did not deny the existence of Jesus, but believed that very few facts could be known about him and characterized the miraculous accounts in the gospels as "mythical".[513][514][515] At about the same time in Berlin, Bruno Bauer supported somewhat similar ideas. HP Pavilion dv4-1204tu Battery [512][516] Although both Strauss and Bauer drew on Hegel, their views did not coincide, and often conflicted.[517][518] Karl Marx, a student and at the time a close friend of Bauer, was significantly influenced by him, as well as Hegel and Strauss, setting the stage for the denial of Jesus within communism. HP Pavilion dv4-1204tx Battery By the beginning of the 20th century, Arthur Drews, William B. Smith and John M. Robertson became the most recognized proponents of the Christ myth theory.[512][521] However, these authors were not performing purely atheist attacks on Christianity, e.g. Drew did not consider religion as outdated, but argued for a different form of religious consciousness. HP Pavilion dv4-1205tu BatteryW. B. Smith argued for a symbolic interpretation of gospel episodes and contended that in a parable such as Jesus and the rich young man the rich young man never existed and symbolically referred to the land of Israel.[522] Smith also argued that Jesus never healed anyone physically, but only spiritually cured them of their paganism.[522] J. M. Robertson on the other hand viewed the gospel accounts as a collection of myths gathered by a large number of anonymous authors, over time. HP Pavilion dv4-1205tx Battery When Marxist–Leninist atheism became part of the state ideals in communist Russia in 1922, the theories of Arthur Drew gained prominence there.[523] The communist state not only supported the Christ myth theory but embellished it with scientific colloquialisms, and school textbooks began to teach that Jesus never existed, making Russia a bastion of Jesus denialHP Pavilion dv4-1206tu BatteryThese ideas were rebuffed in Russia by Sergei Bulgakov and Alexander Men, copies of whose book began to circulate underground via typewriters in the 1970s to reintroduce Christianity to Russia.[523][526] In the 20th century, scholars such as G. A. Wells, Alvar Ellegård, and Robert M. Price produced a number of arguments to support the Christ myth theory. HP Pavilion dv4-1206tx Battery Non-scholarly works on the Jesus myth theory have since been published by mass-media authors such as Doherty, Freke and Gandy. In parallel, a number of historians and biblical scholars such as Paula Fredriksen, Geza Vermes, E.P. Sanders and others involved in the quest for the historical Jesus performed detailed analyses of historical and biblical documents. HP Pavilion dv4-1207tu BatteryAlmost all of these scholars accept the existence of Jesus, but differ on the accuracy of the details of his life within the biblical narratives.[527] Robert Van Voorst stated that among "New Testament scholars and historians the theory of the non-existence of Jesus remains effectively dead as a scholarly question".HP Pavilion dv4-1207tx Battery The Christ myth theory is still being debated in the 21st century, with Graham Stanton stating in 2002 that the most thorough analysis of the theory had been by G. A. Wells.[530] But Wells' book Did Jesus Exist? was criticized by James D.G. Dunn in his book The Evidence for Jesus. HP Pavilion dv4-1208tu Battery And the debates continue, e.g. Wells changed his views over time and while he used to argue that there was no historical evidence supporting the existence of Jesus, he later modified his position, and in his later book The Jesus Myth accepted the possible existence of Jesus based on historical sources, although still disputing the gospel portrayals of his life. HP Pavilion dv4-1208tx Battery Religious perspectives Main article: Religious perspectives on Jesus By and large, the Jews of Jesus' day rejected his claim to be the Messiah, as do Jews today. For their part, Christian Church Fathers, HP Pavilion dv4-1209tu Battery Ecumenical Councils, Reformers, and others have written extensively about Jesus over the centuries. Christian sects and schisms have often been defined or characterized by competing descriptions of Jesus. Meanwhile, Gnostics, Mandaeans, Manichaeans, Muslims, Baha'is, and others have found prominent places for Jesus in their own religious accounts. HP Pavilion dv4-1209tx Battery [citation needed] Christian views Main articles: Jesus in Christianity and Christology [show] Part of a series on ChristianityHP Pavilion dv4-1210ea Battery Although Christian views of Jesus vary, it is possible to summarize key elements of the shared beliefs among major denominations based on their catechetical or confessional texts. HP Pavilion dv4-1210ef BatteryChristian views of Jesus are derived from various sources, but especially from the canonical Gospels, and New Testament letters, such as the Letters of Paul and Johannine writings. Christians predominantly hold that these works are historically true.[537] These documents outline the key beliefs held by Christians about Jesus, including his divinity, humanity, HP Pavilion dv4-1210eo Batteryand earthly life. Generally speaking, adhering to the Christian faith requires a belief that Jesus is the Son of God and the Christ. In the New Testament Jesus indicates that he is the Son of God by calling God his father.[256] However, not all Christian denominations agree on all doctrines, and both major and minor differences on teachings and beliefs have persisted throughout Christianity for centuries. HP Pavilion dv4-1210er Battery Christians consider Jesus the Christ and believe that through his death and resurrection, humans can be reconciled to God and thereby are offered salvation and the promise of eternal life.[539] These teachings emphasize that as the willing Lamb of God, Jesus chose to suffer in Calvary as a sign of his full obedience to the will of the Eternal Father, as an "agent and servant of God".HP Pavilion dv4-1210tu BatteryThe choice Jesus made thus counter-positions him as a the new and last Adam, new man of morality and obedience, in contrast to Adam's disobedience.[541] Most Christians believe that Jesus was both human and the Son of God. While there have been theological debate over the nature of Jesus, HP Pavilion dv4-1210tx BatteryTrinitarian Christians generally believe that Jesus is the Logos, God incarnate, God the Son, and "true God and true man" (or both fully divine and fully human). Jesus, having become fully human in all respects, suffered the pains and temptations of a mortal man, yet he did not sin. As fully God, HP Pavilion dv4-1211ea Battery he defeated death and rose to life again. According to the Bible, God raised him from the dead.[542] He ascended to heaven, to sit at the "Right Hand of God,"[543] and he will return to earth again for the Last Judgment and the establishment of the Kingdom of God in the World to Come.[544] Christians not only attach theological significance to the works of Jesus, but also to his name. HP Pavilion dv4-1211tu Battery Devotions to the Holy Name of Jesus go back to the earliest days of Christianity.[545][546] These devotions and feasts exist both in Eastern and Western Christianity.[546] Jewish views Main article: Judaism's view of Jesus See also: Jesus in the TalmudHP Pavilion dv4-1211tx Battery Classic texts of Rabbinic Judaism reject any notion of an anthropomorphic God. Tractate Ta'anit of the Jerusalem Talmud states explicitly that “if a man claims to be God, he is a liar.”[547] Furthermore Exodus Rabba 29 says, HP Pavilion dv4-1212la Battery"'I am the first and I am the last, and beside Me there is no God' I am the first, I have no father; I am the last, I have no brother. Beside Me there is no God; I have no son."[548] Judaism rejects the idea of Jesus being God, HP Pavilion dv4-1212tu Batteryor a person of a Trinity, or a mediator to God. Judaism also holds that Jesus is not the Messiah, arguing that he had not fulfilled the Messianic prophecies in the Tanakh nor embodied the personal qualifications of the Messiah. According to Jewish tradition, there were no prophets after Malachi, who delivered his prophesies about 420 BC/BCE. HP Pavilion dv4-1212tx Battery The Talmud includes stories which some consider accounts of Jesus in the Talmud, although there is a spectrum[550] from scholars, such as Maier (1978), who considers that only the accounts with the name Yeshu יֵשׁוּ refer to the Christian Jesus, and that these are late redactions, HP Pavilion dv4-1213la Battery to scholars such as Klausner (1925), who suggested that accounts related to Jesus in the Talmud may contain traces of the historical Jesus. However the majority of contemporary historians disregard this material as providing information on the historical Jesus. HP Pavilion dv4-1213tu Battery Many contemporary Talmud scholars view these as comments on the relationship between Judaism and Christians or other sectarians, rather than comments on the historical Jesus.[551][552] The Mishneh Torah, HP Pavilion dv4-1213tx Batteryan authoritative work of Jewish law, provides the last established consensus view of the Jewish community, in Hilkhot Melakhim 11:10–12 that Jesus is a "stumbling block" who makes "the majority of the world err to serve a divinity besides God". Even Jesus the Nazarene who imagined that he would be Messiah and was killed by the court, HP Pavilion dv4-1214la Battery was already prophesied by Daniel. So that it was said, "And the members of the outlaws of your nation would be carried to make a (prophetic) vision stand. And they stumbled."[Dan. 11:14] Because, is there a greater stumbling-block than this one? So that all of the prophets spoke that the Messiah redeems Israel, and saves them, HP Pavilion dv4-1214tu Battery and gathers their banished ones, and strengthens their commandments. And this one caused (nations) to destroy Israel by sword, and to scatter their remnant, and to humiliate them, and to exchange the Torah, and to make the majority of the world err to serve a divinity besides God. HP Pavilion dv4-1214tx Battery However, the thoughts of the Creator of the world — there is no force in a human to attain them because our ways are not God's ways, and our thoughts not God's thoughts. And all these things of Jesus the Nazarene, and of (Muhammad) the Ishmaelite who stood after him — there is no (purpose) but to straighten out the way for the King Messiah, HP Pavilion dv4-1215ef Battery and to restore all the world to serve God together. So that it is said, "Because then I will turn toward the nations (giving them) a clear lip, to call all of them in the name of God and to serve God (shoulder to shoulder as) one shoulder."[Zeph. 3:9] Look how all the world already becomes full of the things of the Messiah, and the things of the Torah, HP Pavilion dv4-1215tu Battery and the things of the commandments! And these things spread among the far islands and among the many nations uncircumcised of heart.[553] According to Conservative Judaism, Jews who believe Jesus is the Messiah have "crossed the line out of the Jewish community".HP Pavilion dv4-1215tx Battery Reform Judaism, the modern progressive movement, states "For us in the Jewish community anyone who claims that Jesus is their savior is no longer a Jew and is an apostate".[555] Islamic views Main article: Jesus in IslamHP Pavilion dv4-1216tu Battery Muhammad leads Jesus, Abraham, Moses and others in prayer. Medieval Persian miniature. In Islam, Jesus (Arabic: عيسى‎ ʿĪsā) is considered to be a Messenger of God and the Masih (Messiah) who was sent to guide the Children of Israel (banī isrā'īl) with a new scripture, the Injīl or Gospel. HP Pavilion dv4-1216tx Battery The belief in Jesus (and all other messengers of God) is required in Islam, and a requirement of being a Muslim. The Qur'an mentions Jesus twenty-five times, more often, by name, than Muhammad.[557][558] There is no mention of Joseph in the Quran, HP Pavilion dv4-1217la Battery but it includes the annunciation to Mary (Arabic: Maryam) by an angel that she is to give birth to Jesus while remaining a virgin, a miraculous event which occurred by the will of God (Arabic: Allah).[559][560][561] The details of the Mary's conception are not discussed during the angelic visit, HP Pavilion dv4-1217tx Batterybut elsewhere the Quran states (21:91 and 66:12) that God breathed "His Spirit" into Mary while she was chaste.[559][560][561][562] In Islam, Jesus is called the "Spirit of God" because he was born through the action of the spirit, but that belief does not include the doctrine of his pre-existence, as it does in Christianity. HP Pavilion dv4-1218tx Battery Numerous other titles are given to Jesus in Islamic literature, the most common being al-Masīḥ ("the messiah"). Jesus is also, at times, called "Seal of the Israelite Prophets", because, in general Muslim belief, Jesus was the last prophet sent by God to guide the Children of Israel. HP Pavilion dv4-1219tx BatteryJesus is seen in Islam as a precursor to Muhammad, and is believed by Muslims to have foretold the latter's coming.[563][564] To aid in his ministry to the Jewish people, Jesus was given the ability to perform miracles, all by the permission of God rather than of his own power. The Qur'an emphasizes that Jesus was a mortal human being who, like all other prophets, had been divinely chosen to spread God's message. Islamic texts forbid the association of partners with God (shirk), HP Pavilion dv4-1220br Battery emphasizing a strict notion of monotheism (tawhīd). Like all prophets in Islam, Jesus is considered to have been a Muslim (i.e., one who submits to the will of God), as he preached that his followers should adopt the "straight path" as commanded by God.[563][565] Islam rejects the Christian view that Jesus was God incarnate or the son of God, HP Pavilion dv4-1220tx Battery that he was ever crucified or resurrected, or that he ever atoned for the sins of mankind. The Qur'an says that Jesus himself never claimed any of these things, and it furthermore indicates that Jesus will deny having ever claimed divinity at the Last Judgment, and God will vindicate him.[566] According to Muslim traditions, Jesus was not crucified but instead, HP Pavilion dv4-1220us Batteryhe was raised up by God unto the heavens. This "raising" is understood to mean through bodily ascension. Muslims believe that Jesus will return to earth near the day of judgment to restore justice.[563][565] Ahmadiyya viewsHP Pavilion dv4-1221tx Battery Main article: Jesus in Ahmadiyya Islam The Ahmadiyya Movement considers Jesus a mortal man who died a natural death. According to the early 20th century writings of Mirza Ghulam Ahmad (the founder of the Ahmadiyya movement), HP Pavilion dv4-1222la Battery Jesus survived his ordeal on the cross, and after his apparent death and resurrection, he fled Palestine and migrated eastwards to further teach the gospels. Jesus eventually died a natural death of old age in Kashmir, India and is believed to be buried at Roza Bal. HP Pavilion dv4-1222nr Battery Although the view of Jesus having migrated to India has also been researched in the publications of independent historians with no affiliation to the movement,[569] the Ahmadiyya Movement are the only religious organization to adopt these views as a characteristic of their faith. HP Pavilion dv4-1222tx Battery The general notion of Jesus in India is older than the foundation of the movement,[570] and is discussed at length by Grönbold[571] and Klatt.[572] The movement also interprets the second coming of Christ prophesied in various religious texts would be that of a person "similar to Jesus" (mathīl-i ʿIsā). HP Pavilion dv4-1223la BatteryThus, Ahmadi's consider that the founder of the movement and his prophetical character and teachings were representative of Jesus and subsequently a fulfillment of this prophecy.[573] Bahá'í views The Bahá'í Faith, HP Pavilion dv4-1223tx Battery founded in 19th-century Persia, considers Jesus, along with Muhammad, the Buddha, Krishna, and Zoroaster, and other messengers of the great religions of the world to be Manifestations of God (or prophets), with both human and divine stations.[574] Bahá'ís refer to this concept as Progressive Revelation, HP Pavilion dv4-1224la Battery which means that God's will is revealed to mankind progressively as mankind matures and is better able to comprehend the purpose of God in creating humanity. In this view, God's word is revealed through a series of messengers: Moses, Jesus, Mohammed, Bahá'u'lláh (the founder of the Bahá'í Faith) among them. HP Pavilion dv4-1224tx BatteryIn the Book of Certitude, Bahá'u'lláh claims that these messengers have two natures: divine and human. Examining their divine nature, they are more or less the same being. However, when examining their human nature, they are individual, with distinct personalities. For example, when Jesus says "I and my Father are one",HP Pavilion dv4-1225dx Battery [John 10:30] Bahá'ís take this quite literally, but specifically with respect to his nature as a Manifestation. When Jesus conversely stated "...And the Father himself, which hath sent me, hath borne witness of me",[John 5:36-37] Bahá'ís see this as a simple reference to the individuality of Jesus. HP Pavilion dv4-1225ee BatteryThis divine nature, according to Bahá'u'lláh, means that any Manifestation of God can be said to be the return of a previous Manifestation, though Bahá'ís also believe that some Manifestations with specific missions return with a "new name",[Rev 3:12] and a different, or expanded purpose. Bahá'ís believe that Bahá'u'lláh is, in both respects, HP Pavilion dv4-1225la Batterythe return of Jesus. Other views Buddhist views of Jesus differ. Some Buddhist views on Jesus including Tenzin Gyatso, the 14th Dalai Lama[575] regard Jesus as a bodhisattva who dedicated his life to the welfare of human beings. HP Pavilion dv4-1225tx Battery It was recorded in 101 Zen Stories that the 14th century Zen master Gasan Jōseki, on hearing some of the sayings of Jesus in the Gospels, remarked that he was "an enlightened man", and "not far from Buddhahood".[576] In a letter to his daughter Indira Gandhi, HP Pavilion dv4-1226tx BatteryJawaharlal Nehru wrote, "All over Central Asia, in Kashmir and Ladakh and Tibet and even farther north, there is a strong belief that Jesus or Isa travelled about there."[577] Mandaeanism, HP Pavilion dv4-1227la Battery a very small Mideastern, Gnostic sect that reveres John the Baptist as God's greatest prophet, regards Jesus as a false prophet of the false Jewish god of the Old Testament, Adonai,[578] and likewise rejects Abraham, Moses, and Muhammad. Manichaeism accepted Jesus as a prophet, HP Pavilion dv4-1227tx Battery along with Gautama Buddha and Zoroaster.[579] The New Age movement entertains a wide variety of views on Jesus. The creators of A Course In Miracles claim to trance-channel his spirit. However, the New Age movement generally teaches that Christhood is something that all may attain. HP Pavilion dv4-1227us BatteryTheosophists, from whom many New Age teachings originated, refer to Jesus of Nazareth as the Master Jesus and believe the Christ, after various incarnations occupied the body of Jesus.[580] U.S. President Thomas Jefferson, a deist, created the Jefferson Bible, an early (but not complete) gospel harmony that included only Jesus' ethical teachings because he did not believe in Jesus' divinity or any of the other supernatural aspects of the Bible. HP Pavilion dv4-1228ca Battery Criticism Main article: Criticism of Jesus Criticism of Jesus has existed since the earliest days of Christianity. The New Testament states that Jesus was criticized by the Jewish authorities of his time, e.g. the Pharisees and scribes who criticized Jesus and his disciples for not observing the Mosaic Law, HP Pavilion dv4-1228la Battery not washing their hands before eating (Mark 7:1-23, Matthew 15:1-20), or gathering grain on the Sabbath (Mark 2:23-3:6). Later critics included Celsus in the 2nd century and Porphyry who wrote a 15 volume attack on Christianity as a whole.[583][584] Jesus continued to be criticized by Judaism, HP Pavilion dv4-1228tx Batteryand in the early 12th century, the Mishneh Torah (the last established consensus of the Jewish community) called Jesus as a "stumbling block" who makes "the majority of the world err to serve a divinity besides God". Criticism of Jesus continued into the 19th century, with Nietzsche being highly critical of Jesus. For instance, HP Pavilion dv4-1229la Battery Nietzsche considered Jesus' teachings anti-natural in their treatment of topics such as sexuality.[585] In the 20th century Bertrand Russell was also critical of Jesus in Why I Am Not a Christian stated that Jesus was "not so wise as some other people have been, and He was certainly not superlatively wise." HP Pavilion dv4-1229tx Battery

Helium And Nitrogen

Helium is the chemical element with atomic number 2 and an atomic weight of 4.002602, which is represented by the symbol He. It is a colorless, odorless, tasteless, non-toxic, inert, monatomic gas that heads the noble gas group in the periodic table. Its boiling and melting points are the lowest among the elements and it exists only as a gas except in extreme conditionsSony VAIO VGN-CS33H battery. Helium is the second lightest element and is the second most abundant element in the observable universe, being present at about 24% of the total elemental mass, which is more than 12 times the mass of all the heavier elements combined. Its abundance is similar to this figure in our own Sun and in JupiterSony VAIO VGN-CS33H/Z battery. This is due to the very high binding energy (per nucleon) of helium-4 with respect to the next three elements after helium. This helium-4 binding energy also accounts for its commonality as a product in both nuclear fusion and radioactive decay. Most helium in the universe is helium-4, and is believed to have been formed during the Big Bang. Some new helium is being created currently as a result of the nuclear fusion of hydrogen in starsSony VAIO VGN-CS33H/B battery. Helium is named for the Greek God of the Sun, Helios. It was first detected as an unknown yellow spectral line signature in sunlight during a solar eclipse in 1868 by French astronomer Jules Janssen. Janssen is jointly credited with detecting the element along with Norman Lockyer during the solar eclipse of 1868, and Lockyer was the first to propose that the line was due to a new element, which he namedSony VAIO VGN-CS31Z/Q battery. The formal discovery of the element was made in 1895 by two Swedish chemists, Per Teodor Cleve and Nils Abraham Langlet, who found helium emanating from the uranium ore cleveite. In 1903, large reserves of helium were found in natural gas fields in parts of the United States, which is by far the largest supplier of the gas todaySony VAIO VGN-CS31S/W battery. Helium is used in cryogenics (its largest single use, absorbing about a quarter of production), particularly in the cooling of superconducting magnets, with the main commercial application being in MRI scanners. Helium's other industrial uses—as a pressurizing and purge gas, as a protective atmosphere for arc welding and in processes such as growing crystals to make silicon wafers—account for half of the gas producedSony VAIO VGN-CS31S/V battery. A well-known but minor use is as a lifting gas in balloons and airships.[2] As with any gas with differing density from air, inhaling a small volume of helium temporarily changes the timbre and quality of the human voice. In scientific research, the behavior of the two fluid phases of helium-4 (helium I and helium II), is important to researchers studying quantum mechanics Sony VAIO VGN-CS31S/T battery (in particular the property of superfluidity) and to those looking at the phenomena, such as superconductivity, that temperatures near absolute zero produce in matter. On Earth it is thus relatively rare—0.00052% by volume in the atmosphere. Most terrestrial helium present today is created by the natural radioactive decay of heavy radioactive elements (thorium and uranium) Sony VAIO VGN-CS31S/R battery, as the alpha particles emitted by such decays consist of helium-4 nuclei. This radiogenic helium is trapped with natural gas in concentrations up to 7% by volume, from which it is extracted commercially by a low-temperature separation process called fractional distillation. History Scientific discoveries The first evidence of helium was observed on August 18, 1868 as a bright yellow line with a wavelength of 587.49 nanometers in the spectrum of the chromosphere of the SunSony VAIO VGN-CS31S/P battery. The line was detected by French astronomer Jules Janssen during a total solar eclipse in Guntur, India.[3][4] This line was initially assumed to be sodium. On October 20 of the same year, English astronomer Norman Lockyer observed a yellow line in the solar spectrum, which he named the D3 Fraunhofer line because it was near the known D1 and D2 lines of sodiumSony VAIO VGN-CS28 battery.[5] He concluded that it was caused by an element in the Sun unknown on Earth. Lockyer and English chemist Edward Frankland named the element with the Greek word for the Sun, ἥλιος (helios).[6][7][8] Spectral lines of helium In 1882, Italian physicist Luigi Palmieri detected helium on Earth, for the first time, through its D3 spectral line, when he analyzed the lava of Mount VesuviusSony VAIO VGN-CS28/Q battery.[9] Sir William Ramsay, the discoverer of terrestrial helium On March 26, 1895, Scottish chemist Sir William Ramsay isolated helium on Earth by treating the mineral cleveite (a variety of uraninite with at least 10% rare earth elements) with mineral acids. Ramsay was looking for argon but, after separating nitrogen and oxygen from the gas liberated by sulfuric acid, he noticed a bright yellow line that matched the D3 line observed in the spectrum of the Sun. Sony VAIO VGN-CS27 batteryThese samples were identified as helium by Lockyer and British physicist William Crookes. It was independently isolated from cleveite in the same year by chemists Per Teodor Cleve and Abraham Langlet in Uppsala, Sweden, who collected enough of the gas to accurately determine its atomic weight. Helium was also isolated by the American geochemist William Francis Hillebrand prior to Ramsay's discovery when he noticed unusual spectral lines while testing a sample of the mineral uraninite. Hillebrand, however, attributed the lines to nitrogenSony VAIO VGN-CS27/W battery. His letter of congratulations to Ramsay offers an interesting case of discovery and near-discovery in science.[15] In 1907, Ernest Rutherford and Thomas Royds demonstrated that alpha particles are helium nuclei by allowing the particles to penetrate the thin glass wall of an evacuated tube, then creating a discharge in the tube to study the spectra of the new gas insideSony VAIO VGN-CS27/R battery. In 1908, helium was first liquefied by Dutch physicist Heike Kamerlingh Onnes by cooling the gas to less than one kelvin.[16] He tried to solidify it by further reducing the temperature but failed because helium does not have a triple point temperature at which the solid, liquid, and gas phases are at equilibrium. Onnes' student Willem Hendrik Keesom was eventually able to solidify 1 cm3 of helium in 1926 by applying additional external pressureSony VAIO VGN-CS27/P battery.[17] In 1938, Russian physicist Pyotr Leonidovich Kapitsa discovered that helium-4 has almost no viscosity at temperatures near absolute zero, a phenomenon now called superfluidity.[18] This phenomenon is related to Bose-Einstein condensation. In 1972, the same phenomenon was observed in helium-3, but at temperatures much closer to absolute zeroSony VAIO VGN-CS27/C battery, by American physicists Douglas D. Osheroff, David M. Lee, and Robert C. Richardson. The phenomenon in helium-3 is thought to be related to pairing of helium-3 fermions to make bosons, in analogy to Cooper pairs of electrons producing superconductivity.[19] Extraction and use After an oil drilling operation in 1903 in Dexter, Kansas, produced a gas geyser that would not burn, Kansas state geologist Erasmus Haworth collected samples of the escaping gas and took them back to the University of Kansas at Lawrence whereSony VAIO VGN-CS26T/W battery, with the help of chemists Hamilton Cady and David McFarland, he discovered that the gas consisted of, by volume, 72% nitrogen, 15% methane (a combustible percentage only with sufficient oxygen), 1% hydrogen, and 12% an unidentifiable gas.[4][20] With further analysis, Cady and McFarland discovered that 1.84% of the gas sample was helium. Sony VAIO VGN-CS26T/V battery This showed that despite its overall rarity on Earth, helium was concentrated in large quantities under the American Great Plains, available for extraction as a byproduct of natural gas.[23] The greatest reserves of helium were in the Hugoton and nearby gas fields in southwest Kansas and the panhandles of Texas and Oklahoma. This enabled the United States to become the world's leading supplier of helium. Following a suggestion by Sir Richard ThrelfallSony VAIO VGN-CS26T/T battery, the United States Navy sponsored three small experimental helium plants during World War I. The goal was to supply barrage balloons with the non-flammable, lighter-than-air gas. A total of 5,700 m3 (200,000 cubic feet) of 92% helium was produced in the program even though less than a cubic meter of the gas had previously been obtained.[5] Some of this gas was used in the world's first helium-filled airshipSony VAIO VGN-CS26T/R battery, the U.S. Navy's C-7, which flew its maiden voyage from Hampton Roads, Virginia, to Bolling Field in Washington, D.C., on December 1, 1921.[24] Although the extraction process, using low-temperature gas liquefaction, was not developed in time to be significant during World War I, production continued. Helium was primarily used as a lifting gas in lighter-than-air craftSony VAIO VGN-CS26T/Q battery. This use increased demand during World War II, as well as demands for shielded arc welding. The helium mass spectrometer was also vital in the atomic bomb Manhattan Project.[25] The government of the United States set up the National Helium Reserve in 1925 at Amarillo, Texas, with the goal of supplying military airships in time of war and commercial airships in peacetimeSony VAIO VGN-CS26T/P battery.[5] Because of a US military embargo against Germany that restricted helium supplies, the Hindenburg, like all German Zeppelins, was forced to use hydrogen as the lift gas. Helium use following World War II was depressed but the reserve was expanded in the 1950s to ensure a supply of liquid helium as a coolant to create oxygen/hydrogen rocket fuel (among other uses) during the Space Race and Cold WarSony VAIO VGN-CS26T/C battery. Helium use in the United States in 1965 was more than eight times the peak wartime consumption.[26] After the "Helium Acts Amendments of 1960" (Public Law 86–777), the U.S. Bureau of Mines arranged for five private plants to recover helium from natural gas. For this helium conservation program, the Bureau built a 425-mile (684 km) pipeline from Bushton, Kansas, to connect those plants with the government's partially depleted Cliffside gas fieldSony VAIO VGN-CS25H battery, near Amarillo, Texas. This helium-nitrogen mixture was injected and stored in the Cliffside gas field until needed, when it then was further purified.[27] By 1995, a billion cubic meters of the gas had been collected and the reserve was US$1.4 billion in debt, prompting the Congress of the United States in 1996 to phase out the reserve.[4][28] The resulting "Helium Privatization Act of 1996"[29] (Public Law 104–273) directed the United States Department of the Interior to start emptying the reserve by 2005Sony VAIO VGN-CS25H/W battery.[30] Helium produced between 1930 and 1945 was about 98.3% pure (2% nitrogen), which was adequate for airships. In 1945, a small amount of 99.9% helium was produced for welding use. By 1949, commercial quantities of Grade A 99.95% helium were available.[31] For many years the United States produced over 90% of commercially usable helium in the world, while extraction plants in CanadaSony VAIO VGN-CS25H/R battery, Poland, Russia, and other nations produced the remainder. In the mid-1990s, a new plant in Arzew, Algeria, producing 17 million cubic meters (600 million cubic feet) began operation, with enough production to cover all of Europe's demand. Meanwhile, by 2000, the consumption of helium within the U.S. had risen to above 15 million kg per yearSony VAIO VGN-CS25H/Q battery.[32] In 2004–2006, two additional plants, one in Ras Laffan, Qatar, and the other in Skikda, Algeria, were built, but as of early 2007, Ras Laffan is functioning at 50%, and Skikda has yet to start up. Algeria quickly became the second leading producer of helium.[33] Through this time, both helium consumption and the costs of producing helium increased.[34] In the 2002 to 2007 period helium prices doubledSony VAIO VGN-CS25H/P battery.[35] Characteristics The helium atom Main article: Helium atom The helium atom. Depicted are the nucleus (pink) and the electron cloud distribution (black). The nucleus (upper right) in helium-4 is in reality spherically symmetric and closely resembles the electron cloud, although for more complicated nuclei this is not always the case. Helium in quantum mechanics In the perspective of quantum mechanics, helium is the second simplest atom to model, following the hydrogen atomSony VAIO VGN-CS25H/C battery. Helium is composed of two electrons in atomic orbitals surrounding a nucleus containing two protons along with some neutrons. As in Newtonian mechanics, no system consisting of more than two particles can be solved with an exact analytical mathematical approach (see 3-body problem) and helium is no exception. Thus, numerical mathematical methods are required, even to solve the system of one nucleus and two electronsSony VAIO VGN-CS23T/W battery. Such computational chemistry methods have been used to create a quantum mechanical picture of helium electron binding which is accurate to within < 2% of the correct value, in a few computational steps.[36] In such models it is found that each electron in helium partly screens the nucleus from the other, so that the effective nuclear charge Z which each electron sees, is about 1.69 units, not the 2 charges of a classic "bare" helium nucleusSony VAIO VGN-CS23T/Q battery. The related stability of the helium-4 nucleus and electron shell The nucleus of the helium-4 atom is identical with an alpha particle. High energy electron-scattering experiments show its charge to decrease exponentially from a maximum at a central point, exactly as does the charge density of helium's own electron cloud. This symmetry reflects similar underlying physicsSony VAIO VGN-CS23H battery: the pair of neutrons and the pair of protons in helium's nucleus obey the same quantum mechanical rules as do helium's pair of electrons (although the nuclear particles are subject to a different nuclear binding potential), so that all these fermions fully occupy 1s orbitals in pairs, none of them possessing orbital angular momentum, and each cancelling the other's intrinsic spinSony VAIO VGN-CS23H/S battery. Adding another of any of these particles would require angular momentum and would release substantially less energy (in fact, no nucleus with five nucleons is stable). This arrangement is thus energetically extremely stable for all these particles, and this stability accounts for many crucial facts regarding helium in nature. For example, the stability and low energy of the electron cloud state in helium accounts for the element's chemical inertnessSony VAIO VGN-CS23H/B battery, and also the lack of interaction of helium atoms with each other, producing the lowest melting and boiling points of all the elements. In a similar way, the particular energetic stability of the helium-4 nucleus, produced by similar effects, accounts for the ease of helium-4 production in atomic reactions involving both heavy-particle emission, and fusion. Some stable helium-3 is produced in fusion reactions from hydrogen, but it is a very small fractionSony VAIO VGN-CS23G battery, compared with the highly favorable helium-4. The stability of helium-4 is the reason hydrogen is converted to helium-4 (not deuterium or helium-3 or heavier elements) in the Sun. It is also partly responsible for the fact that the alpha particle is by far the most common type of baryonic particle to be ejected from atomic nuclei; in other words, alpha decay is far more common than cluster decaySony VAIO VGN-CS23G/W battery. The unusual stability of the helium-4 nucleus is also important cosmologically: it explains the fact that in the first few minutes after the Big Bang, as the "soup" of free protons and neutrons which had initially been created in about 6:1 ratio cooled to the point that nuclear binding was possible, almost all first compound atomic nuclei to form were helium-4 nucleiSony VAIO VGN-CS23G/Q battery. So tight was helium-4 binding that helium-4 production consumed nearly all of the free neutrons in a few minutes, before they could beta-decay, and also leaving few to form heavier atoms such as lithium, beryllium, or boron. Helium-4 nuclear binding per nucleon is stronger than in any of these elements (see nucleogenesis and binding energy) and thus no energetic drive was availableSony VAIO VGN-CS23G/P battery, once helium had been formed, to make elements 3, 4 and 5. It was barely energetically favorable for helium to fuse into the next element with a lower energy per nucleon, carbon. However, due to lack of intermediate elements, this process requires three helium nuclei striking each other nearly simultaneously (see triple alpha process) Sony VAIO VGN-CS21Z/Q battery. There was thus no time for significant carbon to be formed in the few minutes after the Big Bang, before the early expanding universe cooled to the temperature and pressure point where helium fusion to carbon was no longer possible. This left the early universe with a very similar ratio of hydrogen/helium as is observed today (3 parts hydrogen to 1 part helium-4 by mass), with nearly all the neutrons in the universe trapped in helium-4Sony VAIO VGN-CS21S/W battery. All heavier elements (including those necessary for rocky planets like the Earth, and for carbon-based or other life) have thus been created since the Big Bang in stars which were hot enough to fuse helium itself. All elements other than hydrogen and helium today account for only 2% of the mass of atomic matter in the universe. Helium-4, by contrast, makes up about 23% of the universe's ordinary matter—nearly all the ordinary matter that is not hydrogenSony VAIO VGN-CS21S/V battery. Gas and plasma phases Helium discharge tube shaped like the element's atomic symbol Helium is the least reactive noble gas after neon and thus the second least reactive of all elements;[37] it is inert and monatomic in all standard conditions. Because of helium's relatively low molar (atomic) mass, its thermal conductivity, specific heat, and sound speed in the gas phase are all greater than any other gas except hydrogen. For similar reasonsSony VAIO VGN-CS21S/T battery, and also due to the small size of helium atoms, helium's diffusion rate through solids is three times that of air and around 65% that of hydrogen.[5] Helium is the least water soluble monatomic gas,[38] and one of the least water soluble of any gas (CF4, SF6, and C4F8 have lower mole fraction solubilities: 0.3802, 0.4394, and 0.2372 x2/10−5, respectively, versus helium's 0.70797 x2/10−5),[39] and helium's index of refraction is closer to unity than that of any other gasSony VAIO VGN-CS21S/R battery.[40] Helium has a negative Joule-Thomson coefficient at normal ambient temperatures, meaning it heats up when allowed to freely expand. Only below its Joule-Thomson inversion temperature (of about 32 to 50 K at 1 atmosphere) does it cool upon free expansion.[5] Once precooled below this temperature, helium can be liquefied through expansion coolingSony VAIO VGN-CS21S/P battery. Most extraterrestrial helium is found in a plasma state, with properties quite different from those of atomic helium. In a plasma, helium's electrons are not bound to its nucleus, resulting in very high electrical conductivity, even when the gas is only partially ionized. The charged particles are highly influenced by magnetic and electric fields. For example, in the solar wind together with ionized hydrogenSony VAIO VGN-CS215J/R battery, the particles interact with the Earth's magnetosphere giving rise to Birkeland currents and the aurora.[41] Solid and liquid phases Liquefied helium. This helium is not only liquid, but has been cooled to the point of superfluidity. The drop of liquid at the bottom of the glass represents helium spontaneously escaping from the container over the side, to empty out of the container. The energy to drive this process is supplied by the potential energy of the falling helium. See superfluidSony VAIO VGN-CS215J/Q battery. Main article: Liquid helium Unlike any other element, helium will remain liquid down to absolute zero at normal pressures. This is a direct effect of quantum mechanics: specifically, the zero point energy of the system is too high to allow freezing. Solid helium requires a temperature of 1–1.5 K (about −272 °C or −457 °F) and about 25 bar (2.5 MPa) of pressure.[42] It is often hard to distinguish solid from liquid helium since the refractive index of the two phases are nearly the sameSony VAIO VGN-CS19/W battery. The solid has a sharp melting point and has a crystalline structure, but it is highly compressible; applying pressure in a laboratory can decrease its volume by more than 30%.[43] With a bulk modulus of about 27 MPa[44] it is ~100 times more compressible than water. Solid helium has a density of 0.214 ± 0.006 g/cm3 at 1.15 K and 66 atm; the projected density at 0 K and 25 bar (2.5 MPa) is 0.187 ± 0.009 g/cm3. Sony VAIO VGN-CS19/R battery Helium I state Below its boiling point of 4.22 kelvins and above the lambda point of 2.1768 kelvins, the isotope helium-4 exists in a normal colorless liquid state, called helium I.[5] Like other cryogenic liquids, helium I boils when it is heated and contracts when its temperature is lowered. Below the lambda point, however, helium does not boil, and it expands as the temperature is lowered furtherSony VAIO VGN-CS19/Q battery. Helium I has a gas-like index of refraction of 1.026 which makes its surface so hard to see that floats of styrofoam are often used to show where the surface is.[5] This colorless liquid has a very low viscosity and a density of 0.145–0.125 g/mL (between about 0 and 4 K, respectively),[46] which is only one-fourth the value expected from classical physics. Sony VAIO VGN-CS19/P battery Quantum mechanics is needed to explain this property and thus both types of liquid helium are called quantum fluids, meaning they display atomic properties on a macroscopic scale. This may be an effect of its boiling point being so close to absolute zero, preventing random molecular motion (thermal energy) from masking the atomic propertiesSony VAIO VGN-CS17H/W battery.[5] Helium II state Liquid helium below its lambda point begins to exhibit very unusual characteristics, in a state called helium II. Boiling of helium II is not possible due to its high thermal conductivity; heat input instead causes evaporation of the liquid directly to gas. Helium-3 also has a superfluid phase, but only at much lower temperatures; as a result, less is known about such properties in the isotopeSony VAIO VGN-CS17H/Q battery.[5] Unlike ordinary liquids, helium II will creep along surfaces in order to reach an equal level; after a short while, the levels in the two containers will equalize. The Rollin film also covers the interior of the larger container; if it were not sealed, the helium II would creep out and escape.[5] Helium II is a superfluid, a quantum mechanical state (see: macroscopic quantum phenomena) of matter with strange propertiesSony VAIO VGN-CS16T/W battery . For example, when it flows through capillaries as thin as 10−7 to 10−8 m it has no measurable viscosity.[4] However, when measurements were done between two moving discs, a viscosity comparable to that of gaseous helium was observed. Current theory explains this using the two-fluid model for helium II. In this model, liquid helium below the lambda point is viewed as containing a proportion of helium atoms in a ground stateSony VAIO VGN-CS16T/T battery, which are superfluid and flow with exactly zero viscosity, and a proportion of helium atoms in an excited state, which behave more like an ordinary fluid.[47] In the fountain effect, a chamber is constructed which is connected to a reservoir of helium II by a sintered disc through which superfluid helium leaks easily but through which non-superfluid helium cannot pass. If the interior of the container is heated, the superfluid helium changes to non-superfluid helium. In order to maintain the equilibrium fraction of superfluid heliumSony VAIO VGN-CS16T/R battery, superfluid helium leaks through and increases the pressure, causing liquid to fountain out of the container.[48] The thermal conductivity of helium II is greater than that of any other known substance, a million times that of helium I and several hundred times that of copper.[5] This is because heat conduction occurs by an exceptional quantum mechanism. Most materials that conduct heat well have a valence band of free electrons which serve to transfer the heatSony VAIO VGN-CS16T/Q battery. Helium II has no such valence band but nevertheless conducts heat well. The flow of heat is governed by equations that are similar to the wave equation used to characterize sound propagation in air. When heat is introduced, it moves at 20 meters per second at 1.8 K through helium II as waves in a phenomenon known as second soundSony VAIO VGN-CS16T/P battery.[5] Helium II also exhibits a creeping effect. When a surface extends past the level of helium II, the helium II moves along the surface, against the force of gravity. Helium II will escape from a vessel that is not sealed by creeping along the sides until it reaches a warmer region where it evaporates. It moves in a 30 nm-thick film regardless of surface materialSony VAIO VGN-CS13T/W battery. This film is called a Rollin film and is named after the man who first characterized this trait, Bernard V. Rollin.[5][49][50] As a result of this creeping behavior and helium II's ability to leak rapidly through tiny openings, it is very difficult to confine liquid helium. Unless the container is carefully constructed, the helium II will creep along the surfaces and through valves until it reaches somewhere warmer, where it will evaporateSony VAIO VGN-CS13H/W battery. Waves propagating across a Rollin film are governed by the same equation as gravity waves in shallow water, but rather than gravity, the restoring force is the van der Waals force.[51] These waves are known as third sound.[52] Isotopes Main article: Isotopes of helium There are eight known isotopes of helium, but only helium-3 and helium-4 are stable. In the Earth's atmosphere, there is one 3He atom for every million 4He atoms.[4] Unlike most elements, helium's isotopic abundance varies greatly by origin, due to the different formation processesSony VAIO VGN-CS13H/R battery. The most common isotope, helium-4, is produced on Earth by alpha decay of heavier radioactive elements; the alpha particles that emerge are fully ionized helium-4 nuclei. Helium-4 is an unusually stable nucleus because its nucleons are arranged into complete shells. It was also formed in enormous quantities during Big Bang nucleosynthesisSony VAIO VGN-CS13H/Q battery.[53] Helium-3 is present on Earth only in trace amounts; most of it since Earth's formation, though some falls to Earth trapped in cosmic dust.[54] Trace amounts are also produced by the beta decay of tritium.[55] Rocks from the Earth's crust have isotope ratios varying by as much as a factor of ten, and these ratios can be used to investigate the origin of rocks and the composition of the Earth's mantle.[54] 3He is much more abundant in stars, as a product of nuclear fusionSony VAIO VGN-CS13H/P battery. Thus in the interstellar medium, the proportion of 3He to 4He is around 100 times higher than on Earth.[56] Extraplanetary material, such as lunar and asteroid regolith, have trace amounts of helium-3 from being bombarded by solar winds. The Moon's surface contains helium-3 at concentrations on the order of 0.01 ppm, much higher than the ca. 5 ppt found in the Earth's atmosphere. Sony VAIO VGN-CS11Z/T battery A number of people, starting with Gerald Kulcinski in 1986,[59] have proposed to explore the moon, mine lunar regolith and use the helium-3 for fusion. Liquid helium-4 can be cooled to about 1 kelvin using evaporative cooling in a 1-K pot. Similar cooling of helium-3, which has a lower boiling point, can achieve about 0.2 kelvin in a helium-3 refrigerator. Equal mixtures of liquid 3He and 4He below 0.8 K separate into two immiscible phases due to their dissimilarity (they follow different quantum statisticsSony VAIO VGN-CS11Z/R battery: helium-4 atoms are bosons while helium-3 atoms are fermions).[5] Dilution refrigerators use this immiscibility to achieve temperatures of a few millikelvins. It is possible to produce exotic helium isotopes, which rapidly decay into other substances. The shortest-lived heavy helium isotope is helium-5 with a half-life of 7.6×10−22 s. Helium-6 decays by emitting a beta particle and has a half-life of 0.8 secondSony VAIO VGN-CS11S/W battery. Helium-7 also emits a beta particle as well as a gamma ray. Helium-7 and helium-8 are created in certain nuclear reactions.[5] Helium-6 and helium-8 are known to exhibit a nuclear halo. Helium-2 (two protons, no neutrons) is a radioisotope that decays by proton emission into protium (hydrogen), with a half-life of 3×10−27 sSony VAIO VGN-CS11S/Q battery.[5] Compounds See also: Noble gas compound Helium has a valence of zero and is chemically unreactive under all normal conditions.[43] It is an electrical insulator unless ionized. As with the other noble gases, helium has metastable energy levels that allow it to remain ionized in an electrical discharge with a voltage below its ionization potential.[5] Helium can form unstable compounds, known as excimers, with tungstenSony VAIO VGN-CS11S/P battery, iodine, fluorine, sulfur and phosphorus when it is subjected to an electric glow discharge, to electron bombardment, or else is a plasma for another reason. The molecular compounds HeNe, HgHe10, and WHe2, and the molecular ions He+ 2, He2+ 2, HeH+, and HeD+ have been created this way.[60] This technique has also allowed the production of the neutral molecule He2, which has a large number of band systems, and HgHe, which is apparently held together only by polarization forces(Sony VAIO VGN-AW11M/H battery).[5] Theoretically, other true compounds may also be possible, such as helium fluorohydride (HHeF) which would be analogous to HArF, discovered in 2000.[61] Calculations show that two new compounds containing a helium-oxygen bond could be stable.[62] Two new molecular species, predicted using theory, CsFHeO and N(CH3)4FHeO, are derivatives of a metastable (Sony VAIO VGN-AW11S/B battery) anion first theorized in 2005 by a group from Taiwan. If confirmed by experiment, such compounds will end helium's chemical inertness, and the only remaining inert element will be neon.[63] Helium has been put inside the hollow carbon cage molecules (the fullerenes) by heating under high pressure. The endohedral fullerene molecules formed are stable up to high temperatures. When chemical derivatives of these fullerenes are formed, the helium stays inside(Sony VAIO VGN-AW11Z/B battery).[64] If helium-3 is used, it can be readily observed by helium nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy.[65] Many fullerenes containing helium-3 have been reported. Although the helium atoms are not attached by covalent or ionic bonds, these substances have distinct properties and a definite composition, like all stoichiometric chemical compounds(Sony VAIO VGN-AW170C battery). Occurrence and production Natural abundance Helium is the second most abundant element in the known Universe (after hydrogen), constituting 23% of its baryonic mass.[4] The vast majority of helium was formed by Big Bang nucleosynthesis one to three minutes after the Big Bang. As such, measurements of its abundance contribute to cosmological models(Sony VAIO VGN-AW19/Q battery). In stars, it is formed by the nuclear fusion of hydrogen in proton-proton chain reactions and the CNO cycle, part of stellar nucleosynthesis.[53] In the Earth's atmosphere, the concentration of helium by volume is only 5.2 parts per million.[66][67] The concentration is low and fairly constant despite the continuous production of new helium because most helium in the Earth's atmosphere escapes into space by several processes. In the Earth's heterosphere, a part of the upper atmosphere, helium and other lighter gases are the most abundant elements(Sony VAIO VGN-AW19 battery). Most helium on Earth is a result of radioactive decay. Helium is found in large amounts in minerals of uranium and thorium, including cleveite, pitchblende, carnotite and monazite, because they emit alpha particles (helium nuclei, He2+) to which electrons immediately combine as soon as the particle is stopped by the rock. In this way an estimated 3000 metric tons of helium are generated per year throughout the lithosphere. (Sony VAIO VGN-AW21M/H battery) In the Earth's crust, the concentration of helium is 8 parts per billion. In seawater, the concentration is only 4 parts per trillion. There are also small amounts in mineral springs, volcanic gas, and meteoric iron. Because helium is trapped in the subsurface under conditions that also trap natural gas, the greatest natural concentrations of helium on the planet are found in natural gas, from which most commercial helium is extracted(Sony VAIO VGN-AW21S/B battery). The concentration varies in a broad range from a few ppm up to over 7% in a small gas field in San Juan County, New Mexico.[74][75] Modern extraction and distribution For large-scale use, helium is extracted by fractional distillation from natural gas, which contains up to 7% helium.[76] Since helium has a lower boiling point than any other element, low temperature and high pressure are used to liquefy nearly all the other gases (mostly nitrogen and methane) (Sony VAIO VGN-AW21VY/Q battery). The resulting crude helium gas is purified by successive exposures to lowering temperatures, in which almost all of the remaining nitrogen and other gases are precipitated out of the gaseous mixture. Activated charcoal is used as a final purification step, usually resulting in 99.995% pure Grade-A helium.[5] The principal impurity in Grade-A helium is neon. In a final production step, most of the helium that is produced is liquefied via a cryogenic process(Sony VAIO VGN-AW21XY/Q battery). This is necessary for applications requiring liquid helium and also allows helium suppliers to reduce the cost of long distance transportation, as the largest liquid helium containers have more than five times the capacity of the largest gaseous helium tube trailers.[33][77] In 2008, approximately 169 million standard cubic meters (SCM) of helium were extracted from natural gas or withdrawn from helium reserves with approximately 78% from the United States, 10% from Algeria, and most of the remainder from Russia, Poland and Qatar(Sony VAIO VGN-AW21Z/B battery).[78] In the United States, most helium is extracted from natural gas of the Hugoton and nearby gas fields in Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas.[33] Much of this gas was once sent by pipeline to the National Helium Reserve, but since 2005 this reserve is presently being depleted and sold off. Diffusion of crude natural gas through special semipermeable membranes and other barriers is another method to recover and purify helium.[79] In 1996, the U.S. had proven helium reserves, in such gas well complexes(Sony VAIO VGN-AW230J/H battery), of about 147 billion standard cubic feet (4.2 billion SCM).[80] At rates of use at that time (72 million SCM per year in the U.S.; see pie chart below) this is enough helium for about 58 years of U.S. use, and less than this (perhaps 80% of the time) at world use rates, although factors in saving and processing impact effective reserve numbers. It is estimated that the resource base for yet-unproven helium in natural gas in the U.S. is 31–53 trillion SCM, about 1000 times the proven reserves(Sony VAIO VGN-AW31M/H battery).[81] Helium must be extracted from natural gas because it is present in air at only a fraction of that of neon, yet the demand for it is far higher. It is estimated that if all neon production were retooled to save helium, that 0.1% of the world's helium demands would be satisfied. Similarly, only 1% of the world's helium demands could be satisfied by re-tooling all air distillation plants(Sony VAIO VGN-AW31S/B battery).[82] Helium can be synthesized by bombardment of lithium or boron with high-velocity protons, but economically, this is a completely non-viable method of production.[83] Helium is commercially available in either liquid or gaseous form. As a liquid, it can be supplied in small containers called Dewars which hold up to 1,000 liters of helium, or in large ISO containers which have nominal capacities as large as 42 m3 (around 11,000 U.S. gallons). In gaseous form, small quantities of helium are supplied in high pressure cylinders holding up to 8 m3 (Sony VAIO VGN-AW41JF/H battery) (approx. 282 standard cubic feet), while large quantities of high pressure gas are supplied in tube trailers which have capacities of up to 4,860 m3 (approx. 172,000 standard cubic feet). Conservation advocates According to helium conservationists like Robert Coleman Richardson, the free market price of helium has contributed to "wasteful" usage (e.g. for helium balloons). Prices in the 2000s have been lowered by U.S. Congress' decision to sell off the country's large helium stockpile by 2015.[84] According to Richardson, the current price needs to be multiplied by 20 to eliminate the excessive wasting of helium(Sony VAIO VGN-AW41JF battery). Applications Helium is used for many purposes that require some of its unique properties, such as its low boiling point, low density, low solubility, high thermal conductivity, or inertness. Of the 2008 world helium total production of about 32 million kg (193 million standard cubic meters) helium per year, the largest use (about 22% of the total in 2008) is in cryogenic applications(Sony VAIO VGN-AW41MF/H battery), most of which involves cooling the superconducting magnets in medical MRI scanners.[86] Other major uses (totalling to about 78% of use in 1996) were pressurizing and purging systems, maintenance of controlled atmospheres, and welding. Other uses by category were relatively minor fractions(Sony VAIO VGN-AW41MF battery).[87] Controlled atmospheres Helium is used as a protective gas in growing silicon and germanium crystals, in titanium and zirconium production, and in gas chromatography,[43] because it is inert. Because of its inertness, thermally and calorically perfect nature, high speed of sound, and high value of the heat capacity ratio, it is also useful in supersonic wind tunnels[88] and impulse facilities(Sony VAIO VGN-AW41XH/Q battery).[89] Gas tungsten arc welding Main article: gas tungsten arc welding Helium is used as a shielding gas in arc welding processes on materials that at welding temperatures are contaminated and weakened by air or nitrogen.[4] A number of inert shelding gases are used in gas tungsten arc welding, but helium is used instead of cheaper argon especially for welding materials that have higher heat conductivity, like aluminium or copper(Sony VAIO VGN-AW41XH battery). Minor uses Industrial leak detection A dual chamber helium leak detection machine One industrial application for helium is leak detection. Because helium diffuses through solids three times faster than air, it is used as a tracer gas to detect leaks in high-vacuum equipment (such as cryogenic tanks) and high-pressure containers.[90] The tested object is placed in a chamber, which is then evacuated and filled with helium(Sony VAIO VGN-AW41ZF/B battery). The helium that escapes through the leaks is detected by a sensitive device (helium mass spectrometer), even at the leak rates as small as 10−9 mbar·L/s (10−10 Pa·m3/s). The measurement procedure is normally automatic and is called helium integral test. A simpler procedure is to fill the tested object with helium and to manually search for leaks with a hand-held device(Sony VAIO VGN-AW41ZF battery).[91] Helium leaks through cracks should not be confused with gas permeation through a bulk material. While helium has documented permeation constants (thus a calculable permeation rate) through glasses, ceramics, and synthetic materials, inert gases such as helium will not permeate most bulk metals.[92] Flight Because of its low density and incombustibility, helium is the gas of choice to fill airships such as the Goodyear blimp(SONY Vaio VGN-NS38M Battery). Because it is lighter than air, airships and balloons are inflated with helium for lift. While hydrogen gas is approximately 7% more buoyant, helium has the advantage of being non-flammable (in addition to being fire retardant). While balloons are perhaps the most well-known use of helium, they are a minor part of all helium use(SONY Vaio VGN-NS31S Battery).[28] Another minor use is in rocketry, where helium is used as an ullage medium to displace fuel and oxidizers in storage tanks and to condense hydrogen and oxygen to make rocket fuel. It is also used to purge fuel and oxidizer from ground support equipment prior to launch and to pre-cool liquid hydrogen in space vehicles. For example, the Saturn V booster used in the Apollo program needed about 370,000 m3 (13 million cubic feet) of helium to launch(SONY Vaio VGN-NS31M Battery).[43] Minor commercial and recreational uses For its low solubility in nervous tissue, helium mixtures such as trimix, heliox and heliair are used for deep diving to reduce the effects of narcosis.[93][94] At depths below 150 metres (490 ft) small amounts of hydrogen[citation needed] are added to a helium-oxygen mixture to counter the effects of high pressure nervous syndrome.[95] At these depths the low density of helium is found to considerably reduce the effort of breathing(SONY Vaio VGN-NS31Z Battery).[96] Helium-neon lasers, a type of low-powered gas laser producing a red beam, had various practical applications which included barcode readers and laser pointers, before they were almost universally replaced by cheaper diode lasers.[4] For its inertness and high thermal conductivity, neutron transparency, and because it does not form radioactive isotopes under reactor conditions, helium is used as a heat-transfer medium in some gas-cooled nuclear reactors(SONY Vaio VGN-NS21Z Battery).[90] Helium, mixed with a heavier gas such as xenon, is useful for thermoacoustic refrigeration due to the resulting high heat capacity ratio and low Prandtl number.[97] The inertness of helium has environmental advantages over conventional refrigeration systems which contribute to ozone depletion or global warming(SONY Vaio VGN-NS21M Battery).[98] Scientific uses The use of helium reduces the distorting effects of temperature variations in the space between lenses in some telescopes, due to its extremely low index of refraction.[5] This method is especially used in solar telescopes where a vacuum tight telescope tube would be too heavy. (SONY Vaio VGN-NS21S Battery) Helium is a commonly used carrier gas for gas chromatography. The age of rocks and minerals that contain uranium and thorium can be estimated by measuring the level of helium with a process known as helium dating.[4][5] Helium at low temperatures is used in cryogenics, and in certain crygenics applications. As examples of applications, liquid helium is used to cool certain metals to the extremely low temperatures required for superconductivity, such as in superconducting magnets for magnetic resonance imaging(SONY Vaio VGN-NS12S Battery). The Large Hadron Collider at CERN uses 96 metric tons of liquid helium to maintain the temperature at 1.9 kelvin.[101] Safety Neutral helium at standard conditions is non-toxic, plays no biological role and is found in trace amounts in human blood. If enough helium is inhaled that oxygen needed for normal respiration is replaced, asphyxia is possible. The safety issues for cryogenic helium are similar to those of liquid nitrogen(SONY Vaio VGN-NS12M Battery); its extremely low temperatures can result in cold burns and the liquid-to-gas expansion ratio can cause explosions if no pressure-relief devices are installed. Containers of helium gas at 5 to 10 K should be handled as if they contain liquid helium due to the rapid and significant thermal expansion that occurs when helium gas at less than 10 K is warmed to room temperature(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11Z Battery).[43] Biological effects Effect of helium on a human voice The effect of helium on a human voice Problems listening to this file? See media help. The speed of sound in helium is nearly three times the speed of sound in air. Because the fundamental frequency of a gas-filled cavity is proportional to the speed of sound in the gas, when helium is inhaled there is a corresponding increase in the pitches of the resonant frequencies of the vocal tract.[4][102] This causes a reedy, duck-like vocal quality(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11M Battery). (The opposite effect, lowering frequencies, can be obtained by inhaling a dense gas such as sulfur hexafluoride or xenon.) Inhaling helium can be dangerous if done to excess, since helium is a simple asphyxiant and so displaces oxygen needed for normal respiration.[4][103] Breathing pure helium continuously causes death by asphyxiation within minutes. Inhaling helium directly from pressurized cylinders is extremely dangerous(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11L Battery), as the high flow rate can result in barotrauma, fatally rupturing lung tissue.[103][104] However, death caused by helium is rare, with only two fatalities reported between 2000 and 2004 in the United States.[104] However, there were two cases in 2010, one in the USA[105] in January and another in Northern Ireland in November(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11J Battery).[106] At high pressures (more than about 20 atm or two MPa), a mixture of helium and oxygen (heliox) can lead to high-pressure nervous syndrome, a sort of reverse-anesthetic effect; adding a small amount of nitrogen to the mixture can alleviate the problem.[107][108] Nitrogen ( /ˈnaɪtrɵdʒən/ ny-trə-jən) is a chemical element that has the symbol N, atomic number of 7 and atomic mass 14.00674 u. Elemental nitrogen is a colorless(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11E Battery), odorless, tasteless, and mostly inert diatomic gas at standard conditions, constituting 78.09% by volume of Earth's atmosphere.[1] The element nitrogen was discovered as a separable component of air, by Scottish physician Daniel Rutherford, in 1772. Nitrogen is a common element in the universe, estimated at about seventh in total abundance in our galaxy and the solar system(SONY Vaio VGN-NS10L Battery). Its occurrence there is thought to be entirely due to synthesis by fusion from carbon and hydrogen in supernovas. Due to the volatility of elemental nitrogen and its common compounds with hydrogen and oxygen, nitrogen is far less common on the rocky planets of the inner solar system, and it is a relatively rare element on Earth as a whole. However, as is the case on Earth, nitrogen and its compounds occur commonly as gases in the atmospheres of planets and moons that have atmospheres(SONY Vaio VGN-NS10J Battery). Many industrially important compounds, such as ammonia, nitric acid, organic nitrates (propellants and explosives), and cyanides, contain nitrogen. The extremely strong bond in elemental nitrogen dominates nitrogen chemistry, causing difficulty for both organisms and industry in breaking the bond to convert the N2 into useful compounds(SONY Vaio VGN-NS10E Battery), but at the same time causing release of large amounts of often useful energy when the compounds burn, explode, or decay back into nitrogen gas. Nitrogen occurs in all living organisms, primarily in amino acids and thus proteins and in the nucleic acids (DNA and RNA). The human body contains about 3% by weight of nitrogen, the fourth most abundant element after oxygen, carbon(SONY Vaio VGN-NS38M/W Battery), and hydrogen. Nitrogen resides in the chemical structure of almost all neurotransmitters, and is a defining component of alkaloids, biological molecules produced as secondary metabolites by many organisms. The nitrogen cycle describes movement of the element from the air into the biosphere and organic compounds, then back into the atmosphere. Synthetically produced nitrates are key ingredients of industrial fertilizers(SONY Vaio VGN-NS38M/P Battery),[1] and key pollutants in causing the eutrophication of water systems. History and etymology Nitrogen is formally considered to have been discovered by Scottish physician Daniel Rutherford in 1772, who called it noxious air or fixed air.[2] The fact that there was an element of air that does not support combustion was clear to Rutherford. Nitrogen was also studied at about the same time by Carl Wilhelm Scheele, Henry Cavendish, and Joseph Priestley(SONY Vaio VGN-NS31Z/W Battery), who referred to it as burnt air or phlogisticated air. Nitrogen gas was inert enough that Antoine Lavoisier referred to it as "mephitic air" or azote, from the Greek word ἄζωτος (azotos) meaning "lifeless".[3] In it, animals died and flames were extinguished. Lavoisier's name for nitrogen is used in many languages (French, Polish, Russian, etc.) and still remains in English in the common names of many compounds, such as hydrazine and compounds of the azide ion(SONY Vaio VGN-NS31Z/S Battery). The English word nitrogen (1794) entered the language [4] from the French nitrogène, coined in 1790 by French chemist Jean-Antoine Chaptal (1756–1832), from "nitre" + Fr. gène "producing" (from Gk. -γενής means "forming" or "giving birth to."). The gas had been found in nitric acid. Chaptal's meaning was that nitrogen gas is the essential part of nitric acid(SONY Vaio VGN-NS31Z/P Battery), in turn formed from saltpetre (potassium nitrate), then known as nitre. This word in the more ancient world originally described sodium salts that did not contain nitrate, and is a cognate of natron. Nitrogen compounds were well known during the Middle Ages. Alchemists knew nitric acid as aqua fortis (strong water). The mixture of nitric and hydrochloric acids was known as aqua regia (royal water), celebrated for its ability to dissolve gold (the king of metals). The earliest military, industrial, and agricultural applications of nitrogen compounds used saltpetre (SONY Vaio VGN-NS31S/S Battery) (sodium nitrate or potassium nitrate), most notably in gunpowder, and later as fertilizer. In 1910, Lord Rayleigh discovered that an electrical discharge in nitrogen gas produced "active nitrogen", an allotrope considered to be monatomic. The "whirling cloud of brilliant yellow light" produced by his apparatus reacted with quicksilver to produce explosive mercury nitride(SONY Vaio VGN-NS31M/W Battery).[5] [edit]Production Nitrogen gas is an industrial gas produced by the fractional distillation of liquid air, or by mechanical means using gaseous air (i.e., pressurized reverse osmosis membrane or Pressure swing adsorption). Commercial nitrogen is often a byproduct of air-processing for industrial concentration of oxygen for steelmaking and other purposes. When supplied compressed in cylinders it is often called OFN (oxygen-free nitrogen) (SONY Vaio VGN-NS31M/P Battery).[6] In a chemical laboratory it is prepared by treating an aqueous solution of ammonium chloride with sodium nitrite. NH4Cl(aq) + NaNO2(aq) → N2(g) + NaCl(aq) + 2 H2O (l) Small amounts of impurities NO and HNO3 are also formed in this reaction. The impurities can be removed by passing the gas through aqueous sulfuric acid containing potassium dichromate. Very pure nitrogen can be prepared by the thermal decomposition of barium or sodium azide(SONY Vaio VGN-NS21Z/S Battery). 2 NaN3 → 2 Na + 3 N2 Properties Nitrogen is a nonmetal, with an electronegativity of 3.04. It has five electrons in its outer shell and is, therefore, trivalent in most compounds. The triple bond in molecular nitrogen (N2) is one of the strongest. The resulting difficulty of converting N2 into other compounds, and the ease (and associated high energy release) of converting nitrogen compounds into elemental N2, have dominated the role of nitrogen in both nature and human economic activities(SONY Vaio VGN-NS21S/W Battery). At atmospheric pressure molecular nitrogen condenses (liquefies) at 77 K (−195.79 °C) and freezes at 63 K (−210.01 °C)[1] into the beta hexagonal close-packed crystal allotropic form. Below 35.4 K (−237.6 °C) nitrogen assumes the cubic crystal allotropic form (called the alpha-phase). Liquid nitrogen, a fluid resembling water in appearance, but with 80.8% of the density (the density of liquid nitrogen at its boiling point is 0.808 g/mL), is a common cryogen(SONY Vaio VGN-NS21S/S Battery). Unstable allotropes of nitrogen consisting of more than two nitrogen atoms have been produced in the laboratory, like N3 and N4.[7] Under extremely high pressures (1.1 million atm) and high temperatures (2000 K), as produced using a diamond anvil cell, nitrogen polymerizes into the single-bonded cubic gauche crystal structure. This structure is similar to that of diamond, and both have extremely strong covalent bonds. N4 is nicknamed "nitrogen diamond." (SONY Vaio VGN-NS21M/W Battery) [8] Other (as yet unsynthesized) allotropes include hexazine (N6, a benzene analog)[9] and octaazacubane (N8, a cubane analog).[10] The former is predicted to be highly unstable, while the latter is predicted to be kinetically stable, for reasons of orbital symmetry.[11] [edit]Isotopes See also: Isotopes of nitrogen There are two stable isotopes of nitrogen: 14N and 15N. By far the most common is 14N (99.634%), which is produced in the CNO cycle in stars(SONY Vaio VGN-NS21M/P Battery). Of the ten isotopes produced synthetically, 13N has a half-life of ten minutes and the remaining isotopes have half-lives on the order of seconds or less. Biologically mediated reactions (e.g., assimilation, nitrification, and denitrification) strongly control nitrogen dynamics in the soil. These reactions typically result in 15N enrichment of the substrate and depletion of the product(SONY Vaio VGN-NS12S/S Battery). A small part (0.73%) of the molecular nitrogen in Earth's atmosphere is the isotopologue 14N15N, and almost all the rest is 14N2. Radioisotope 16N is the dominant radionuclide in the coolant of pressurized water reactors or boiling water reactors during normal operation. It is produced from 16O (in water) via (n,p) reaction. It has a short half-life of about 7.1 s, but during its decay back to 16O produces high-energy gamma radiation (5 to 7 MeV) (SONY Vaio VGN-NS12M/W Battery). Because of this, the access to the primary coolant piping in a pressurized water reactor must be restricted during reactor power operation.[12] 16N is one of the main means used to immediately detect even small leaks from the primary coolant to the secondary steam cycle. In similar fashion, access to any of the steam cycle components in a boiling water reactor nuclear power plant must be restricted during operation(SONY Vaio VGN-NS12M/S Battery). Condensate from the condenser is typically retained for 10 minutes to allow for decay of the 16N. This eliminates the need to shield and restrict access to any of the feed water piping or pumps. [edit]Electromagnetic spectrum Nitrogen discharge (spectrum) tube Molecular nitrogen (14N2) is largely transparent to infrared and visible radiation because it is a homonuclear molecule and, thus, has no dipole moment to couple to electromagnetic radiation at these wavelengths. Significant absorption occurs at extreme ultraviolet wavelengths(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11Z/S Battery), beginning around 100 nanometers. This is associated with electronic transitions in the molecule to states in which charge is not distributed evenly between nitrogen atoms. Nitrogen absorption leads to significant absorption of ultraviolet radiation in the Earth's upper atmosphere and the atmospheres of other planetary bodies. For similar reasons, pure molecular nitrogen lasers typically emit light in the ultraviolet range(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11ZR/S Battery). Nitrogen also makes a contribution to visible air glow from the Earth's upper atmosphere, through electron impact excitation followed by emission. This visible blue air glow (seen in the polar aurora and in the re-entry glow of returning spacecraft) typically results not from molecular nitrogen but rather from free nitrogen atoms combining with oxygen to form nitric oxide (NO) (SONY Vaio VGN-NS11S/S Battery). Nitrogen gas also exhibits scintillation. [edit]Reactions Structure of dinitrogen, N2 Structure of [Ru(NH3)5(N2)]2+ In general, nitrogen is unreactive at standard temperature and pressure. N2 reacts spontaneously with few reagents, being resilient to acids and bases as well as oxidants and most reductants. When nitrogen reacts spontaneously with a reagent, the net transformation is often called nitrogen fixation(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11SR/S Battery). Nitrogen reacts with elemental lithium.[13] Lithium burns in an atmosphere of N2 to give lithium nitride: 6 Li + N2 → 2 Li3N Magnesium also burns in nitrogen, forming magnesium nitride. 3 Mg + N2 → Mg3N2 N2 forms a variety of adducts with transition metals. The first example of a dinitrogen complex is [Ru(NH3)5(N2)]2+ (see figure at right). However, it is interesting to note that the N2 ligand was obtained by the decomposition of hydrazine, and not coordination of free dinitrogen. Such compounds are now numerous, other examples include IrCl(N2)(PPh3)2(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11M/S Battery), W(N2)2(Ph2PCH2CH2PPh2)2, and [(η5-C5Me4H)2Zr]2(μ2, η2,η2-N2). These complexes illustrate how N2 might bind to the metal(s) in nitrogenase and the catalyst for the Haber process.[14] A catalytic process to reduce N2 to ammonia with the use of a molybdenum complex in the presence of a proton source was published in 2005(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11MR/S Battery).[13] The starting point for industrial production of nitrogen compounds is the Haber process, in which nitrogen is fixed by reacting N2 and H2 over an iron(II, III) oxide (Fe3O4) catalyst at about 500 °C and 200 atmospheres pressure. Biological nitrogen fixation in free-living cyanobacteria and in the root nodules of plants also produces ammonia from molecular nitrogen(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11L/S Battery). The reaction, which is the source of the bulk of nitrogen in the biosphere, is catalyzed by the nitrogenase enzyme complex that contains Fe and Mo atoms, using energy derived from hydrolysis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) into adenosine diphosphate and inorganic phosphate (−20.5 kJ/mol). [edit]Occurrence See also Category: Nitrate minerals See also Category: Ammonium minerals Nitrogen is the largest constituent of the Earth's atmosphere (78.082% by volume of dry air, 75.3% by weight in dry air). However, this high concentration does not reflect nitrogen's overall low abundance in the makeup of the Earth, from which most of the element escaped by solar evaporation, early in the planet's formation(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11J/S Battery). Nitrogen is a common element in the universe, and is estimated to be approximately seventh most abundant chemical element by mass in the universe, our galaxy and the solar system. Its occurrence there is thought to be entirely due to synthesis by fusion from carbon and hydrogen in supernovas. In these places it was originally created by fusion processes from carbon and hydrogen in supernovas(SONY Vaio VGN-NS11E/S Battery).[15]Molecular nitrogen and nitrogen compounds have been detected in interstellar space by astronomers using the Far Ultraviolet Spectroscopic Explorer.[16] Due to the volatility of elemental nitrogen and also its common compounds with hydrogen and oxygen, nitrogen and its compounds were driven out of the planetesimals in the early solar system by the heat of the Sun, and in the form of gases, were lost to the rocky planets of the inner solar system(SONY Vaio VGN-NS115N/S Battery). Nitrogen is therefore a relatively rare element on these inner planets, including Earth, as a whole. In this, nitrogen resembles neon, which has a similar abundance in the universe, but is also rare in the inner solar system. Nitrogen is estimated at 30th of the elements in crustal abundance. There exist some relatively uncommon nitrogen minerals, such as saltpetre (potassium nitrate), Chile saltpetre (sodium nitrate) and sal ammoniac (ammonium chloride) (SONY Vaio VGN-NS110E/W Battery). Even these are known mainly as concentrated from evaporative ocean beds, on account of their ready solubility of most naturally-occurring nitrogen compounds in water. A similar pattern occurs with the water solubility of the uncommon light element boron. However, nitrogen and its compounds occur far more commonly as gases in the atmospheres of planets and moons that are large enough to have atmospheres(SONY Vaio VGN-NS110E/S Battery).[17] For example, molecular nitrogen is a major constituent of not only Earth's atmosphere, but also the Saturnian moon Titan's thick atmosphere. Also, due to retension by gravity at colder temperatures, nitrogen and its compounds occur in appreciable to trace amounts in planetary atmospheres of the gas giant planets.[18] Nitrogen is present in all living organisms, in proteins, nucleic acids, and other molecules. It typically makes up around 4% of the dry weight of plant matter(SONY Vaio VGN-NS110E/L Battery), and around 3% of the weight of the human body. It is a large component of animal waste (for example, guano), usually in the form of urea, uric acid, ammonium compounds, and derivatives of these nitrogenous products, which are essential nutrients for all plants that cannot fix atmospheric nitrogen. [edit]Compounds See also Category: Nitrogen compounds The main neutral hydride of nitrogen is ammonia (NH3), although hydrazine (N2H4) is also commonly used. Ammonia is more basic than water by 6 orders of magnitude. In solution ammonia forms the ammonium ion (NH+(SONY Vaio VGN-NS10L/S Battery) 4). Liquid ammonia (boiling point 240 K) is amphiprotic (displaying either Brønsted-Lowry acidic or basic character) and forms ammonium and the less common amide ions (NH− 2); both amides and nitride (N3−) salts are known, but decompose in water. Singly, doubly, triply and quadruply substituted alkyl compounds of ammonia are called amines (four substitutions, to form commercially and biologically important quaternary amines, results in a positively charged nitrogen, and thus a water-soluble, or at least amphiphilic, compound) (SONY Vaio VGN-NS10J/S Battery). Larger chains, rings and structures of nitrogen hydrides are also known, but are generally unstable. Other classes of nitrogen anions (negatively charged ions) are the poisonous azides (N− 3), which are linear and isoelectronic to carbon dioxide, but which bind to important iron-containing enzymes in the body in a manner more resembling cyanide. Another molecule of the same structure is the colorless and relatively inert anesthetic gas Nitrous oxide (dinitrogen monoxide, N2O), also known as laughing gas(SONY Vaio VGN-NS10E/S Battery). This is one of a variety of nitrogen oxides that form a family often abbreviated as NOx. Nitric oxide (nitrogen monoxide, NO), is a natural free radical used in signal transduction in both plants and animals, for example, in vasodilation by causing the smooth muscle of blood vessels to relax. The reddish and poisonous nitrogen dioxide NO2 contains an unpaired electron and is an important component of smog(Sony VAIO VGN-SR59VG battery). Nitrogen molecules containing unpaired electrons show a tendency to dimerize (thus pairing the electrons), and are, in general, highly reactive. The corresponding acids are nitrous HNO2 and nitric acid HNO3, with the corresponding salts called nitrites and nitrates. The higher oxides dinitrogen trioxide N2O3, dinitrogen tetroxide N2O4 and dinitrogen pentoxide N2O5, are unstable and explosive, a consequence of the chemical stability of N2. Nearly every hypergolic rocket engine uses N2O4 as the oxidizer(Sony VAIO VGN-SR59VG/H battery); their fuels, various forms of hydrazine, are also nitrogen compounds. These engines are extensively used on spacecraft such as the space shuttle and those of the Apollo Program because their propellants are liquids at room temperature and ignition occurs on contact without an ignition system, allowing many precisely controlled burns. Some launch vehicles such as the Titan II and Ariane 1 through 4 also use hypergolic fuels(Sony VAIO VGN-SR55TF/B battery), although the trend is away from such engines for cost and safety reasons. N2O4 is an intermediate in the manufacture of nitric acid HNO3, one of the few acids stronger than hydronium and a fairly strong oxidizing agent. Nitrogen is notable for the range of explosively unstable compounds that it can produce. Nitrogen triiodide NI3 is an extremely sensitive contact explosive. Nitrocellulose, produced by nitration of cellulose with nitric acid, is also known as guncotton(Sony VAIO VGN-SR51MF battery). Nitroglycerin, made by nitration of glycerin, is the dangerously unstable explosive ingredient of dynamite. The comparatively stable, but less powerful explosive trinitrotoluene (TNT) is the standard explosive against which the power of nuclear explosions are measured.[19] Nitrogen can also be found in organic compounds. Common nitrogen functional groups include: amines, amides, nitro groups, imines, and enamines(Sony VAIO VGN-SR51MF/W battery). The amount of nitrogen in a chemical substance can be determined by the Kjeldahl method. [edit]Applications Nitrogen gas has a variety of applications, including serving as an inert replacement for air where oxidation is undesirable; As a modified atmosphere, pure or mixed with carbon dioxide, to preserve the freshness of packaged or bulk foods (by delaying rancidity and other forms of oxidative damage) In ordinary incandescent light bulbs as an inexpensive alternative to argon(Sony VAIO VGN-SR51B battery).[20] The production of electronic parts such as transistors, diodes, and integrated circuits Dried and pressurized, as a dielectric gas for high-voltage equipment The manufacturing of stainless steel[21] Used in military aircraft fuel systems to reduce fire hazard, (see inerting system) On top of liquid explosives as a safety measure Filling automotive and aircraft tires[22] due to its inertness and lack of moisture or oxidative qualities, as opposed to air(Sony VAIO VGN-SR51B/S battery). The difference in N2 content between air and pure N2 is 20%[23][24] Used as a propellant for draft wine, and as an alternative to or together with carbon dioxide for other beverages. Nitrogen is commonly used during sample preparation procedures for chemical analysis. It is used to concentrate and reduce the volume of liquid samples. Directing a pressurized stream of nitrogen gas perpendicular to the surface of the liquid allows the solvent to evaporate while leaving the solute(s) and un-evaporated solvent behind(Sony VAIO VGN-SR51B/P battery).[25] Nitrogen tanks are also replacing carbon dioxide as the main power source for paintball guns. Nitrogen must be kept at higher pressure than CO2, making N2 tanks heavier and more expensive. [edit]Nitrogenated beer Nitrogen can be used instead of carbon dioxide to pressurize kegs of some beers, in particular, stouts and British ales, due to the smaller bubbles it produces, which makes the dispensed beer smoother and headier(Sony VAIO VGN-SR49VN/H battery). A pressure sensitive nitrogen capsule known commonly as a "widget" allows nitrogen charged beers to be packaged in cans and bottles.[26] A mixture of nitrogen and carbon dioxide can be used for this purpose as well, to maintain the saturation of beer with carbon dioxide.[27] [edit]Liquid nitrogen Air balloon submerged in liquid nitrogen Main article: Liquid nitrogen Liquid nitrogen is a cryogenic liquid. At atmospheric pressure, it boils at −195.8 °C. When insulated in proper containers such as Dewar flasks, it can be transported without much evaporative loss(Sony VAIO VGN-SR49D battery).[28] Like dry ice, the main use of liquid nitrogen is as a refrigerant. Among other things, it is used in the cryopreservation of blood, reproductive cells (sperm and egg), and other biological samples and materials. It is used in the clinical setting in cryotherapy to remove cysts and warts on the skin.[29] It is used in cold traps for certain laboratory equipment and to cool infrared detectors or X-ray detectors(Sony VAIO VGN-SR49D/Q battery). It has also been used to cool central processing units and other devices in computers that are overclocked, and that produce more heat than during normal operation.[30] [edit]Applications of nitrogen compounds Molecular nitrogen (N2) in the atmosphere is relatively non-reactive due to its strong bond, and N2 plays an inert role in the human body, being neither produced nor destroyed. In nature, nitrogen is converted into biologically (and industrially) useful compounds by lightning, and by some living organisms(Sony VAIO VGN-SR49D/J battery), notably certain bacteria (i.e., nitrogen fixing bacteria—see Biological role below). Molecular nitrogen is released into the atmosphere in the process of decay, in dead plant and animal tissues. The ability to combine, or fix, molecular nitrogen is a key feature of modern industrial chemistry, where nitrogen and natural gas are converted into ammonia via the Haber process. Ammonia, in turn, can be used directly (primarily as a fertilizer, and in the synthesis of nitrated fertilizers) (Sony VAIO VGN-SR48J battery),[1] or as a precursor of many other important materials including explosives, largely via the production of nitric acid by the Ostwald process. The organic and inorganic salts of nitric acid have been important historically as convenient stores of chemical energy. They include important compounds such as potassium nitrate (or saltpeter used in gunpowder) and ammonium nitrate(Sony VAIO VGN-SR48J/J battery), an important fertilizer and explosive (see ANFO). Various other nitrated organic compounds, such as nitroglycerin, trinitrotoluene, and nitrocellulose, are used as explosives and propellants for modern firearms. Nitric acid is used as an oxidizing agent in liquid fueled rockets. Hydrazine and hydrazine derivatives find use as rocket fuels and monopropellants. In most of these compounds(Sony VAIO VGN-SR48J/B battery), the basic instability and tendency to burn or explode is derived from the fact that nitrogen is present as an oxide, and not as the far more stable nitrogen molecule (N2), which is a product of the compounds' thermal decomposition. When nitrates burn or explode, the formation of the powerful triple bond in the N2 produces most of the energy of the reaction(Sony VAIO VGN-SR46TD/B battery). Nitrogen is a constituent of molecules in every major drug class in pharmacology and medicine. Nitrous oxide (N2O) was discovered early in the 19th century to be a partial anesthetic, though it was not used as a surgical anesthetic until later. Called "laughing gas", it was found capable of inducing a state of social disinhibition resembling drunkenness. Other notable nitrogen-containing drugs are drugs derived from plant alkaloids, such as morphine (Sony VAIO VGN-SR46MD/B battery) (there exist many alkaloids known to have pharmacological effects; in some cases, they appear as natural chemical defenses of plants against predation). Drugs that contain nitrogen include all major classes of antibiotics and organic nitrate drugs like nitroglycerin and nitroprusside that regulate blood pressure and heart action by mimicking the action of nitric oxide(Sony VAIO VGN-SR46GD battery). [edit]Biological role See also: Nitrogen cycle and Human impacts on the nitrogen cycle Nitrogen is an essential building block of amino and nucleic acids, essential to life on Earth. Elemental nitrogen in the atmosphere cannot be used directly by either plants or animals, and must be converted to a reduced (or 'fixed') state to be useful for higher plants and animals. Precipitation often contains substantial quantities of ammonium and nitrate, thought to result from nitrogen fixation by lightning and other atmospheric electric phenomena(Sony VAIO VGN-SR45T/W battery).[31] This was first proposed by Liebig in 1827 and later confirmed.[31] However, because ammonium is preferentially retained by the forest canopy relative to atmospheric nitrate, most fixed nitrogen reaches the soil surface under trees as nitrate. Soil nitrate is preferentially assimilated by tree roots relative to soil ammonium(Sony VAIO VGN-SR45T/P battery). Specific bacteria (e.g., Rhizobium trifolium) possess nitrogenase enzymes that can fix atmospheric nitrogen (see nitrogen fixation) into a form (ammonium ion) that is chemically useful to higher organisms. This process requires a large amount of energy and anoxic conditions. Such bacteria may live freely in soil (e.g., Azotobacter) but normally exist in a symbiotic relationship in the root nodules of leguminous plants (Sony VAIO VGN-SR45T/B battery) (e.g. clover, Trifolium, or soybean plant, Glycine max). Nitrogen-fixing bacteria are also symbiotic with a number of unrelated plant species such as alders (Alnus) spp., lichens, Casuarina, Myrica, liverworts, and Gunnera.[32] As part of the symbiotic relationship, the plant converts the 'fixed' ammonium ion to nitrogen oxides and amino acids to form proteins and other molecules, (e.g., alkaloids). In return for the 'fixed' nitrogen, the plant secretes sugars to the symbiotic bacteria(Sony VAIO VGN-SR45H battery).[32] Legumes maintain an anaerobic (oxygen free) environment for their nitrogen-fixing bacteria. Plants are able to assimilate nitrogen directly in the form of nitrates that may be present in soil from natural mineral deposits, artificial fertilizers, animal waste, or organic decay (as the product of bacteria, but not bacteria specifically associated with the plant). Nitrates absorbed in this fashion are converted to nitrites by the enzyme nitrate reductase, and then converted to ammonia by another enzyme called nitrite reductase(Sony VAIO VGN-SR45H/P battery).[32] Nitrogen compounds are basic building blocks in animal biology as well. Animals use nitrogen-containing amino acids from plant sources as starting materials for all nitrogen-compound animal biochemistry, including the manufacture of proteins and nucleic acids. Plant-feeding insects are dependent on nitrogen in their diet, such that varying the amount of nitrogen fertilizer applied to a plant can affect the reproduction rate of insects feeding on fertilized plants(Sony VAIO VGN-SR45H/N battery).[33] Soluble nitrate is an important limiting factor in the growth of certain bacteria in ocean waters.[34] In many places in the world, artificial fertilizers applied to crop-lands to increase yields result in run-off delivery of soluble nitrogen to oceans at river mouths. This process can result in eutrophication of the water, as nitrogen-driven bacterial growth depletes water oxygen to the point that all higher organisms die(Sony VAIO VGN-SR45H/B battery). Well-known "dead zone" areas in the U.S. Gulf Coast and the Black Sea are due to this important polluting process. Many saltwater fish manufacture large amounts of trimethylamine oxide to protect them from the high osmotic effects of their environment; conversion of this compound to dimethylamine is responsible for the early odor in unfresh saltwater fish.[35] In animals, free radical nitric oxide (NO) (derived from an amino acid), serves as an important regulatory molecule for circulation(Sony VAIO VGN-SR41M/W battery).[34] Animal metabolism of NO results in production of nitrite. Animal metabolism of nitrogen in proteins, in general, results in excretion of urea, while animal metabolism of nucleic acids results in excretion of urea and uric acid. The characteristic odor of animal flesh decay is caused by the creation of long-chain, nitrogen-containing amines, such as putrescine and cadaverine(Sony VAIO VGN-SR41M/S battery), which are breakdown products of the amino acids ornithine and lysine, respectively, in decaying proteins.[36] Decay of organisms and their waste products may produce small amounts of nitrate, but most decay eventually returns nitrogen content to the atmosphere, as molecular nitrogen. The circulation of nitrogen from atmosphere, to organic compounds, then back to the atmosphere, is referred to as the nitrogen cycle(Sony VAIO VGN-SR41M/P battery).[32] [edit]Safety Rapid release of nitrogen gas into an enclosed space can displace oxygen, and therefore represents an asphyxiation hazard. This may happen with few warning symptoms, since the human carotid body is a relatively slow and a poor low-oxygen (hypoxia) sensing system.[37] An example occurred shortly before the launch of the first Space Shuttle mission in 1981(Sony VAIO VGN-SR3CW/B battery), when two technicians lost consciousness (and one of them died) after they walked into a space located in the Shuttle's Mobile Launcher Platform that was pressurized with pure nitrogen as a precaution against fire. The technicians would have been able to exit the room if they had experienced early symptoms from nitrogen-breathing(Sony VAIO VGN-SR39XN/S battery). When inhaled at high partial pressures (more than about 4 bar, encountered at depths below about 30 m in scuba diving), nitrogen begins to act as an anesthetic agent. It can cause nitrogen narcosis, a temporary semi-anesthetized state of mental impairment similar to that caused by nitrous oxide(Sony VAIO VGN-SR39VN/S battery). Nitrogen also dissolves in the bloodstream and body fats. Rapid decompression (in particular, in the case of divers ascending too quickly, or astronauts decompressing too quickly from cabin pressure to spacesuit pressure) can lead to a potentially fatal condition called decompression sickness (formerly known as caisson sickness or the bends), when nitrogen bubbles form in the bloodstream, nerves, joints, and other sensitive or vital areas. (Sony VAIO VGN-SR39D battery)Other "inert" gases (those gases other than carbon dioxide and oxygen) cause the same effects from bubbles composed of them, so replacement of nitrogen in breathing gases may prevent nitrogen narcosis, but does not prevent decompression sickness.[42] Direct skin contact with liquid nitrogen will cause severe frostbite (cryogenic "burns"). This may happen almost instantly on contact(Sony VAIO VGN-SR39D/Q battery), or after a second or more, depending on the form of liquid nitrogen. Bulk liquid nitrogen causes less rapid freezing than a spray of nitrogen mist (such as is used to freeze certain skin growths in the practice of dermatology). The extra surface area provided by nitrogen-soaked materials is also important, with soaked clothing or cotton causing far more rapid damage than a spill of direct liquid to skin(Sony VAIO VGN-SR39D/J battery). Full "contact" between naked skin and large collected-droplets or pools of liquid nitrogen may be prevented for a second or two, by a layer of insulating gas from the Leidenfrost effect. This may give the skin a second of protection from nitrogen bulk liquid. However, liquid nitrogen applied to skin in mists, and on fabrics, bypasses this effect, and causes local frostbite immediately(Sony VAIO VGN-SR38/Q battery). Oxygen sensors are sometimes used as a safety precaution when working with liquid nitrogen to alert workers of gas spills into a confined space.